CHAPTER 2 cont..

Sources of Water Supply

Previous Session

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 Introduction

• Nature of water source determines the components of the water supply syste

• Factors to be considered to select source:

• Quantity
• Quality
• Reliability
• Safety of source
• Water rights
• Environmental impacts…
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 Hydrologic Cycle

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Types of water supply sources
Surface water Groundwater
sources sources

Rainwater Spring water

Lakes and
wells
reservoirs

Infiltration
River water
gallery…

Infiltration
Sea water
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wells
 Rain water
• Rain water might contain dust, smoke, bacteria,
carbon dioxide… as falling from high altitude

• RW Harvesting- roofs are most effective and can

be integrated with tanks

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 Rain water…
• Advantages of rainwater collection:
• Quality of RW is high
• Independent
• Local materials can be used for collection
• No energy costs
• Easy to maintain
• Time saving and convenient
• Disadvantages
• High initial cost (i.e. for a family)
• Quantity of water is dependent on the roof area and rainy seasons
• Flat taste by Abreham M
Lakes and reservoirs
 Store water in wet seasons for usage in dry seasons
 It is a standing water; because of this:
◦ Quality is very low: turbidity, bacteria and pollutants

◦ Thermal stratification (i.e. for deep lakes/reservoirs)

by Abreham M Lake Tana

 River water
 A stream or river is a body of running water on the surface of the
earth, from higher to lower ground.

 Their capacity is dependent on minimum flow per day

 Development of rivers requires :
 submerged intake structure
 small diversion dams (i.e. for small streams)

by Abreham M Abay river

 Groundwater sources

Aquifer

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 Groundwater sources..
Groundwater is water available from water bearing subsurface formation

The water bearing layers are called Aquifers.

• Impervious layers do not allow water to flow through them and as a result they do not
supply water to wells or boreholes.

• Groundwater is obtained by drilling boreholes in geological areas where is water

bearing aquifers.

• Source of drinking water for many towns in Ethiopia

• the study of groundwater is vital and also complex because groundwater location and
movement are determined primarily by the geology of the area.
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Important Terminologies
1. Infiltration: entrance of rainwater into ground is called infiltration. The
amount of infiltration depends on rainfall characteristics, soil characteristics
and land cover.

2. Porosity: the ratio of the volume of pores (voids) in the material to its
volume, expressed in percentage.

3. Aquifer: water bearing geologic formation or stratum capable of

transmitting water through its pores at a rate sufficient enough for economic
extraction of water.

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 Important Terminologies

4. Aquiclude: geologic formation that can absorb water but cannot transmit
significant amount.

5. Aquifuge: impermeable formations which neither contain water nor

transmit any water.

6. Permeability: the capability of formation to pass water through.

7. Zone of Saturation: portion of the earth through which lateral movement

of groundwater takes place.

8. Water Table: upper surface of zone of saturation.

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 Groundwater sources

• Advantages :
• It is likely to be free of pathogenic bacteria

• free from turbidity and colour

• It can be used without further treatment

• It can be found in the close vicinity

• It is economical to obtain and distribute

• The water-bearing stratum provides a natural storage at the point of intake.

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 Groundwater Sources…

• Disadvantages

• often have high in mineral content;

• It usually requires pumping.

• CATIONS: calcium, magnesium, iron and manganese

• ANIONS: bicarbonate, carbonate, and chloride

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 Important considerations in locating well site:
• Sanitary survey: a good picture of the pollution problems in the area and their
possible impact on the ground water ..
• Well location: -wells should be located on the highest ground practicable, certainly on
ground higher than nearby potential sources of pollution.
• Minimum distance from pollution sources:
Source Minimum Horizontal
Distance
Building Sewer 15.0 meter
Septic Tank 15.0 meter
Disposal Field 30.0 meter
Seepage Pit 30.0 meter
Dry Well 15.0 meter
Cesspool 45.0 meter
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Springs
Spring water is a groundwater that outcrops from ground
due to impervious base that prevents percolation.
Mostly found from sand or gravel aquifers

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• Gravity springs
• GW flows over an impervious stratum onto the ground surface
• The yield varies with the position of the water table
• May dry up during or immediately after a dry season

Gravity overflow spring Gravity depression spring

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 Recharge of aquifers
Replenishment (filling) of aquifers is known as recharge
• Unconfined aquifers are recharged by precipitation percolating down from the land’s
surface
• Confined aquifers are generally recharged where the aquifer materials are exposed at
the land’s surface -called an outcrop.
• s
•
•
Artesian depression spring
High quality water due to confinement
High discharge due to high pressure in the confinement
Artesian fissure spring
• Yield is likely uniform and nearly constant over the seasons of the year

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Recharge of Aquifers

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 Recharge of aquifers…
• When surface water loses water to the adjacent aquifer, the stream is called
a losing stream.
• water flows from the ground water to the stream, it is called a gaining
stream.

Groundwater table

Aquifer
Impervious layer
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 Water quality considerations
• To evaluate and classify raw water quality

• physical, chemical, and bacteriological parameters

• To identify sources of pollution

• Surface water: urban runoff, agricultural runoff, industrial discharge, and

leachate from landfills;

• Groundwater: infiltration from pit-latrines and septic tanks, landfill leachate,

and infiltration from polluted areas.

• To assess the treatment required for beneficial uses

• level of treatment and unit process required are dependent on the raw
water quality by Abreham M
Source selection
• Surface water sources
• Safe water yield during the drought years

• Urbanization and land development in the watershed

• Proposed impoundments on tributaries

• Water quality

• Assessment of reliability

• Requirements for construction of water supply system components

• Economics of the project

• Environmental impacts of the project

• Water rights by Abreham M

Source selection…
• Ground water sources
• Aquifer characteristics (depth, geology,

• Safe aquifer yield

• Permissible drawdown

• Water quality

• Source of contamination(gasoline, oil, chemicals)

• Saltwater intrusion(areas near to seas or oceans)

• Type and extent of recharge area

• Rate of recharge

• Water rights by Abreham M

 Reservoirs
o Contain dam to hold water
o A spillway to allow excess water to flow
o A gate chamber with valves to regulate flow

An artificial lake formed by the construction of a

dam across a valley

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Reservoirs
The area of land draining to the dam site is called a
catchment or watershed.

Outlet

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Reservoirs
Investigations for reservoir planning:

• A. Topographic surveying- to produce a topo-map which will be used as a base for

• preparing water surface area vs. elevation curve

• plotting storage volume vs. elevation

• indicating man-made and natural features that may be affected

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Reservoirs

• B. Geologic investigations

• Water tightness of the reservoir basin

• Suitability of foundations for the dam

• Geological and structural features, such as faults, fissures, etc

• Type and depth of overburden

• Location of permeable and soluble rocks if any

• Ground water conditions in the region

• Location and quantity of materials for the dam construction

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Reservoirs…

• C. Hydrological investigations

• determination of rainfall, runoff, seepage, and evaporation

in the reservoir catchment from long years of data.
These information are essential for estimating the reservoir capacity and design of
spill way.

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 Selecting reservoir site
• Catchment geology- minimum percolation losses and high runoff potential

• Dam site- strong foundation with minimum seepage loss

• Narrow valley- sites that resulting lesser dam length

• Topography- should be such that large area and valuable properties are not submerged

• Site that creates deep reservoirs- this has the advantages of minimizing the evaporation
loss and submerged area when compared to shallow reservoirs

• Sites that ensure good water quality- avoid sites that are downstream of waste
discharges and tributaries with high silt loads

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Volume of reservoirs
• Yield is the amount of water that can be supplied from a reservoir within a
specified interval of time.

• Safe yield or firm yield: is the maximum quantity of water that can be
guarantied during a critical dry period.

• the safe yield from a reservoir > maximum day demand

• Methods to determine the storage volume of reservoirs:

• Mass curve method
• Analytical method.
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Mass curve method
• reservoir capacity is determined from accumulated mass inflow and accumulated demand curves.

• —
Net Inflow= total Inflow-outflow (evaporation, seepage, d/s flow)

Procedure

Prepare
• — accumulated mass inflow curve from the stream hydrograph
•—
Prepare the accumulated demand curve on the same scale
•—
Draw tangent lines that are parallel to the accumulated demand curve
at the high points of the accumulated mass curve (P1, P2, P3, etc)
•—Measure the vertical distances between the tangent lines and the mass inflow
curve (V1, V2, V3, etc.)
•—
Determine the required reservoir storage capacity as the largest of
the vertical distances (V1, V2, V3, etc.)
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 Analytical method
•—
Calculate the net inflow from the given hydrological data

•—
Calculate the deficiency (demand – net inflow)

•—
Compute the cumulative deficiency. If the cumulative deficiency is negative, take the
cumulative deficiency as zero

•—
Determine the required reservoir capacity as the maximum cumulative deficiency

1 2 3 = 2-1 (4) if CF is –ve, take 0

Net inflow (m3) Demand (m3) Deficiency (m3) Cumulative deficiency (m3)
I1 D1 F1 CF1 = F1
I2 D2 F2 CF2 = CF1 + F2
I3 D3 F3 CF3 = CF2 + F3

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 Inflow
Month ML/km2)
Example
1 94
Compute the storage requirement
2 122
needed for an impounding 3 45
reservoir for a constant draft of 23 4 5
5 5
ML/km2/months of 30.4 days with 6 2
the given monthly net river inflow 7 0
8 2
for a critical year.
9 16
10 7
11 72
12 92
13 21
14 55
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15 33
 Analytical Solution
Draft/ Cumulative Cumulative Deficiency Cumulative Surplus Cumulative
Month Inflow
demand demand Inflow Deficiency Surplus
1 94 23 23
2 122 23 46
3 45 23 69
4 5 23 92
5 5 23 115
6 2 23 138
7 0 23 161
8 2 23 184
9 16 23 207
10 7 23 230
11 72 23 253
12 92 23 276
13 21 23 299
14 55 23 322
15 33 23 345 by Abreham M
Impoundments: Embankment dams
A dam constructed from natural materials

• Earth fill dam: compacted soil

• Rock fill dam: coarse-grained material or crushed rock with impervious membrane

Advantages:

• For sites in wide valleys and steep-sided gorges

• Adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions

• Use of locally available natural materials

Disadvantages:

• Easily damaged or destructed by overflow

• leakage and internal erosion

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 Impoundments: Concrete Dam

They are gravity dam, arch dam, buttress dam, etc.

Gravity dam

• Dependent upon its own mass for stability.

• For gorges with very steep side slopes

• It can be constructed by Masonry(stone or brick)

• Shape: straight or curved

• Dam height: can be very high for sound foundation

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 Impoundments: Concrete Dams...
Arch dam

• Functions structurally as a horizontal arch, transmitting the major portion of

the water load to the abutments or valley sides rather than to the floor of
the valley.

• structurally more efficient, needs less concrete volume

Buttress dam

• consists of a continuous upstream face supported at regular intervals by

downstream buttresses. by Abreham M
 Catchment Protection

• Minimization of diffuse pollution from urban runoff

• Minimization of agricultural diffuse pollution

• Controlling discharges from point sources such as wastewater treatment plant, industries,
etc

• Limitation of soil erosion through soil conservation measures, such as afforestation, etc.

• Providing corridors along tributary streams, rivers, and the reservoir

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 Design Capacity of Service Reservoirs
The three major components of service storage are:
• Equalizing or operating storage
• Fire reserve
• Emergency reserve

Equalizing or operating capacity can be obtained from a mass curve of water consumption
rates and pumping supply rates.
• The capacity can be analytically determined by finding out maximum cumulative
surplus during the stage when pumping rate is higher than water consumption rate
and adding to this maximum cumulative deficit which occurs during the period when
the pumping rate is lower than the demand rate of water.

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 Cont…
• Example-1. A small town with a design population of 1600 is to be
supplied water at 150liters per capita per day. The demand of water
during different periods is given in the following table:

Time (hr) 0-3 3-6 6-9 9 -12 12 - 15 15- 18 18 -21 21- 24

Demand(1000liters) 20 25 30 50 35 30 25 25

Determine the capacity of a service reservoir if pumping is done 24 hours at

constant rate.
Solution
Water supply = 150l/c/d
Total water demand = demand * population = 150*1600 = 240,000liters
Rate of pumping = 240,000/24 = 10,000lit/hr
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= 30,000lit/3hr
 1) Analytical Method

Time Pumping Demand Surplus Deficit Cummulative

0-3 30,000 20,000 10000 0 10000
3. - 6. 30,000 25,000 5000 0 15000
6. - 9 30,000 30,000 0 0 15000
9. - 12 30,000 50,000 0 -20000 -5000
12. - 15 30,000 35,000 0 -5000 -10000
15. -18 30,000 30,000 0 0 -10000
18. - 21 30,000 25,000 5000 0 -5000
21. -24 30,000 25,000 5000 0 0
Maximum cumulative surplus = 15,000 liters
Maximum cumulative deficit = 10,000 liters
Total 25,000lit = 25 m3
If the reservoir is circular with depth, h = 3.0 m,
25 * 4
D  3.4m
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 2) Graphical Method
Time Pumping Demand Cummulative demand Cummulative Pumping
0-3 30,000 20,000 30,000 20,000
3. - 6. 30,000 25,000 60,000 45,000
6. - 9 30,000 30,000 90,000 75,000
9. - 12 30,000 50,000 120,000 125,000
12. - 15 30,000 35,000 150,000 160,000
15. -18 30,000 30,000 180,000 190,000
18. - 21 30,000 25,000 210,000 215,000
21. -24 30,000 25,000 240,000 240,000

Mass Curve Cummul ative demand

300,000
Cummul ative Pumping
Cummulative Demand & Supply

250,000
(21. -24), 240,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (Hours)
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 Conti..
• Example2. If in example -1 pumping is done for:

A. Eight hours from 8 hrs to 16 hrs

b. Eight hrs from 4 hrs to 8 hrs and again 16 hours to 20 hrs.

• Solution.

Total water demand = 240,000lit/hr

Rate of pumping = 240,000/8 = 30,000l/h = 90,000lit/3hrs

Case I

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A) Analytical Method
For Graphical Method
Time Pumping Demand Surplus Deficit Cumulative Cumulative Demand Cumulative supply
0-3 0 20000 0 -20000 -20000 20000 0
3-6 0 25000 0 -25000 -45000 45000 0
6-8 0 20000 0 -20000 -65000 65000 0
8-9 30000 10000 20000 0 -45000 75000 30000
9 -12 90000 50000 40000 0 -5000 125000 120000
12 -15 90000 35000 55000 0 50000 160000 210000
15 - 16 30000 10000 20000 0 70000 170000 240000
16 -18 0 20000 0 -20000 50000 190000 240000
18-21 0 25000 0 -25000 25000 215000 240000
21 -24 0 25000 0 -25000 0 240000 240000
Maximum cumulative surplus= 70000 Balancing Storage , S =
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Maximum cumulative Deficit = -65000 135000 litres =135m3
B) Graphical Method

Max.Surplus

Max.Deficit

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A) Analytical Method Case II For Graphical Method
Time Pumping Demand Surplus Deficit Cumulative Cummulative Demand Cummulative supply
0-3 0 20000 0 -20000 -20000 20000 0
3-4 0 8333 0 -8333 -28333 28333 0
6-8 60000 20000 40000 0 55000 65000 120000
8-9 0 10000 0 -10000 45000 75000 120000
9-12 0 50000 0 -50000 -5000 125000 120000
12- 15 0 35000 0 -35000 -40000 160000 120000
15 -16 0 10000 0 -10000 -50000 170000 120000
16-18 60000 20000 40000 0 -10000 190000 180000
18- 20 60000 16667 43333 0 33333 206667 240000
20- 21 0 8333 0 -8333 25000 215000 240000
21- 24 0 25000 0 -25000 0 240000 240000
Maximum cumulative surplus 55000
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Maximum cumulative Deficit -50000 Balancing storage, S= 105000liter = 105m3
 B) Graphical Method
MASS CURVE
300000

Cum m ulative Dem and

250000 Cum m ulative s upply
CUMULATIVE SUPPLY & DEMAND

200000

150000

MAX DEFICIT

100000

Max Surplus
50000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
TIM E (HOURS)
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Thank you for your attention!

by Abreham M