Work sampling

Dr. Titis Wijayanto

Laboratory of Ergonomics – Industrial Engineering

Gadjah Mada University
Historical notes
• L. H. C. Tippe* – introduced the technique of work
sampling (1927): snap reading method
• snapshots to observe the ac.vity (up.me vs. down.me)
of the looms in tex.le industries in England
• Tippe> published "Random Sampling Numbers" in 1927
and thus invented the random number table.
• R. L. Morrow- introduced the technique in US
(1941): “ratio delay study”
• primary application to be in the sampling of delays
during production.
• The name “work sampling” was later coined by C. L.
Brisley and H. L. Waddell
Work sampling
• also known as “activity sampling”, “ratio-delay study”, “random
observation method”, “snap-reading study”

• Work sampling is defined as a statistical technique for determining

the proportions of time spent by subjects in various defined
categories of activity.
• Large number of observations are made over an extended period of time
• Statistical inferences are drawn about the proportion of time spent by
subjects in various defined categories of activity
• For statistical accuracy
• Observations must be taken at random time
• Period of the study must be representative of the types of activities performed by the
subjects
When work sampling is appropriate?
• sufficient time available to perform the study
• work sampling requires a substantial period of time to complete.
• There must be enough time available (e.g., several weeks or more) to conduct the
study.

• multiple subjects/workers
• commonly used to study the activities of multiple subjects rather than one subject.

• long cycle times

• The jobs covered in the study have relatively long cycle times.

• non repetitive work cycles

• The jobs consist of various tasks rather than a single repetitive task
Common applica6ons
Work sampling can be applied to determine:
• Machine utilization.
• how much time is spent by machines in various categories of activity

• Worker utilization
• how workers spend their time

• Allowances for time standards

• assessment of delay components in PFD allowance factor

• Average unit time

• determining the average time on each work unit

• Time standards.
• Especially for indirect labor and office worker
Work sampling illustration
Example 1: A total of 500 observations were made at random times during a one-week period (a
total of 40 h) in the automatic lathe section. the subjects consisted of 10 identical machines. in each
observation, the activity of the machine was identified and classified into one of three categories:
(1) being set up; (2) running production; and (3) idle. the number of observation in each category is
summarized in the table below. estimate how many hours per week an average machine spent in
each of the categories.
Statistical basis of work sampling
• The statistical basis of work sampling is the binomial distribution:
• at a given instant, an event can be either present (p) or absent (q or 1-p).

• illustration: 35

supposed we have a binomial experiment: 30

tossing a coin, we are likely to have 50 “heads” 25
and 50 “tails” in every 100 tosses of coin. 20

Let’s say, we have 5 coins and toss them 100 15

times, we may obtain the proportional 10
distribution of heads and tails as shown in the 5
next figure.
0
heads 0 1 2 3 4 5
tails 5 4 3 2 1 0
Statistical basis of work sampling
• the binomial distribution usually approaches normal distribution with
mean (μ) equals to np and variance (𝜎2) equals to npq or np(1-p).
 !
Estimating the proportion 𝒑
• In work sampling study, we let 𝑝̂ as the proporNon of the total
number of observaNons devoted to an acNvity category (e.g.,
producNve).
• The proporNon 𝑝̂ is our esNmate of the true value of the populaNon
proporNon 𝑝
• We expect 𝑝̂ to be close to p and our problem is to esNmate 𝑝 within
a defined error range at a given confidence level.
$
%&%
Pr(−𝑧!/# < < +𝑧!/# ) = 1 − α
(
'!
Confidence interval in work sampling
• This can be rearranged to the following

Pr(𝑝̂ − 𝑧!/# 𝜎/% < 𝑝 < 𝑝̂ + 𝑧!/# 𝜎/% ) = 1 − α

• The probability that the actual 𝑝 lies between 𝑝̂ − 𝑧!/# and 𝑝̂ + 𝑧!/# is (1 − 𝛼)
Confidence interval in work sampling
• Example 2: Determine the 95% confidence interval for the proportion
of time spent setting up the machines, category (1), in Example 1.
Number of required observations
• Increasing the number of observaNons increases the accuracy and the
precision of our esNmate.
• However, observa.ons are costly
• How many observaNon are required to achieve a given confidence
interval about the esNmated 𝑝?
• We need…
• Confidence level 1 − 𝛼
• This allows us to find the corresponding value of 𝑧!/#

• The half-width 𝑐 of the confidence interval, defined as the desired

acceptable devia.on from 𝑝
• Thus, we have 𝑝 ± 𝑐
Number of required observations
• Given the 𝑧!/# and the half width confidence interval 𝑐, the number
of required observation (𝑛) can be determined using the following
formula
Number of required observations
• Example 3: In the context of our previous examples, determine how many
observations will be required to estimate the proportion of time used to set up
the 10 machines in the automatic lathe section. The confidence interval must be
within ± 0.03 of the true proportion, which the foreman initially estimates to be 𝑝̂
= 0.20. A 95% confidence level will be used.
Steps in planning work sampling
1. Define the objective(s) of study
2. Define the subjects to be studied.
3. Define the output measure(s)
4. Define the activity categories
5. Design the study
6. Identify the observers who will do the sampling
7. Announce the study
8. Make the observations
9. After completing the study, analyze and present the results
Defining the objective of the study
• what is the main objec+ve of the study?
• The simplest objecNve is to determine whether the subjects
(workers/machines) are idle or working

observation

working idle
Defining the objective of the study
• what is the main objective of the study?
• A more detailed objective is to determine the idle activities

observation

working idle

Waiting for Waiting for Workers’

just idle
materials supplies personal needs
Defining the objec6ve of the study
• what is the main objective of the study?
• A more detailed objective is to determine the working activities

observation

working idle

Processing the Receiving Repairing the SeFng up the

material instruction machine machine
Defining the activity categories
• The activity categories are the states of the subjects that the observer
must be able to identify and classify during the snapshot observation.
Defining the activity categories
• The activity categories are the states of the subjects that the observer
must be able to identify and classify during the snapshot observation.
Designing the study

Design the forms that will be used to record the observations

Determine how many observations will be required.

Decide on the number of days or shi@s to be included in the study.

What are the randomized times when the

Schedule the observations. observations will be made
The forms (example)
How many observation
• use the formula:

• The frequency of the observations depends, for the most part, on the
number of observations required and the time available to develop
the data.
Scheduling the observation
• The observations in work sampling should be made at random
• Using random numbers table
Scheduling the observation
• The observaNons in work sampling should be made at random
• Using MS Excel
Scheduling the observation
Example 4: For the machine utilization example, generate the schedule of 10
observation times for the first day. The shift hours are 8:00 A.M. to noon, then 1:00
P.M. to 5:00 P.M.
Solution: A set of three-digit numbers were randomly generated from a uniform distribution between 1 and 999
using Excel. The first 18 numbers generated were as follows: 021, 542, 865, 804, 023, 488, 587, 743, 570, 722,
308, 118, 431, 465, 337, 605, 229, 325.
Conversion of these numbers into clock times is accomplished using the following (free) rules:
(1) numbers with first digits = 8, 9, 1, 2, 3, and 4 are read directly as the clock hour,
(2) numbers with first digits = 0 and 6 are read as clock hours 10 and 11, respectively,
(3) numbers with first digits = 5 and 7 are discarded,
(4) numbers with second digits 6 through 9 are discarded.
Scheduling the observation
Example 4: For the machine utilization example, generate the schedule of 10
observation times for the first day. The shift hours are 8:00 A.M. to noon, then 1:00
P.M. to 5:00 P.M.
Solution:
Another option – using Excel’s random generator
Average task 6me
• Average task times and standard times can be determined using work
sampling.
• The average task time for a given work category is determined by
(1) computing the total time associated with that category
(2) dividing by the total count of work units produced during this time.

𝑝& (𝑇𝑇)
𝑇%& =
𝑄&

Where 𝑇%& = average cycle time for task 𝑖, 𝑝& = proportion of observations
𝑇𝑇= total observed time during work sampling, 𝑄& = work unit output during
work sampling
Average task time
Example 5: Suppose in Example 1 that a total of 1572 work units were completed
by the 10 machines and that a total of 23 setups were accomplished during the 5-
day period. Determine (a) the average task time per work unit during production
and (b) the average setup time.
Determining standard time
• To set time standards, the analyst must rate the performance of the worker
during each observation, in addition to identifying the category of activity.
• The normalized time can be determined as follows:
𝑝& (𝑇𝑇)(𝑃𝑅& )
𝑇'& =
𝑄&

• where 𝑇!" = normal time for work unit associated with activity category 𝑖; 𝑃𝑅" = average
value of the performance ratings for all observations in category 𝑖
• The standard time is calculated as

𝑇()* = 𝑇'& (1 + 𝐴+,* )

Determining standard 6me
Exercise
1. A work sampling study was performed during a 3-hour final exam to determine
the proportion of time that students spend using a calculator. There were 70
students taking the exam. A total of five observations were taken of each
student at random times during the 3 hours. Of the total observations taken,
77 of the observations found the students using their calculators. (a) Form a
90% confidence interval on the proportion of time students spend using their
calculators during an exam. (b) How many observations must be taken for the
analyst to be 95% confident that the estimate of proportion of time a student
uses a calculator is within ± 3% of the true proportion?
Exercise
2. The Chief Industrial Engineer in the production department wanted to know
what value of PFD allowance to use for a particular section of the shop. A work
sampling study was authorized. Only three activity categories were considered:
(1) production work, (2) personal time, rest breaks, and delays, and (3) other
activities. Over a 4-week period (40 hours/week), 100 observations were made
at random times. Each observation captured the category of activity of each of
22 production workers in the shop section of interest. Results indicated that
category 2 constituted 19% of the total observations. (a) Define the limits of a
95% confidence interval for activity 2. (b) If a total of 522 work units were
produced during the 4 weeks, and the 1540 observations in category 1 were all
devoted to producing these units, what was the average time spent on each
unit?