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 Elementary

LINEAR
METRIC VERSION

ALGEBRA
EIGHTH EDITION  METRIC VERSION

Ron Larson
INDEX OF APPLICATIONS
BIOLOGY AND LIFE SCIENCES
Age distribution vector, 378, 391, 392, 395
Age progression software, 180
Age transition matrix, 378, 391, 392, 395
Agriculture, 37, 50
Cosmetic surgery results simulation, 180
Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 365
Galloping speeds of animals, 276
Genetics, 365
Health care expenditures, 146
Heart rhythm analysis, 255
Hemophilia A, 365
Hereditary baldness, 365
Nutrition, 11
Population
of deer, 37
of laboratory mice, 91
of rabbits, 379
of sharks, 396
of small fish, 396
Population age and growth over time, 331
Population genetics, 365
Population growth, 378, 379, 391, 392,
395, 396, 398
Predator-prey relationship, 396
Red-green color blindness, 365
Reproduction rates of deer, 103
Sex-linked inheritance, 365
Spread of a virus, 91, 93
Vitamin C content, 11
Wound healing simulation, 180
X-linked inheritance, 365
BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS
Airplane allocation, 91
Borrowing money, 23
Demand, for a rechargeable power drill, 103
Demand matrix, external, 98
Economic system, 97, 98
of a small community, 103
Finance, 23
Fundraising, 92
Gasoline sales, 105
Industrial system, 102, 107
Input-output matrix, 97
Leontief input-output model(s), 97, 98, 103
Major League Baseball salaries, 107
Manufacturing
labor and material costs, 105
models and prices, 150
production levels, 51, 105
Net profit, Microsoft, 32
Output matrix, 98
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
Petroleum production, 292 MATHEMATICS AND GEOMETRY
Profit, from crops, 50 Adjoint of a matrix, 134, 135, 142, 146, 150
Purchase of a product, 91 Collinear points in the xy-plane, 139, 143
Revenue Conic section(s), 226, 229
fast-food stand, 242 general equation, 141
General Dynamics Corporation, 266, 276 rotation of axes, 221–224, 226, 229,
Google, Inc., 291    383–385, 392, 395
telecommunications company, 242 Constrained optimization, 389, 390, 392,
software publishers, 143   395
Sales, 37 Contraction in R2, 337, 341, 342
concession area, 42 Coplanar points in space, 140, 143
stocks, 92 Cramer’s Rule, 130, 136, 137, 142, 143, 146
Wal-Mart, 32 Cross product of two vectors, 277–280,
Sales promotion, 106 288, 289, 294
Satellite television service, 85, 86, 147 Differential equation(s)
Software publishing, 143 linear, 218, 225, 226, 229
second order, 164
system of first order, 354, 380, 381,
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY    391, 392, 395, 396, 398
Aircraft design, 79 Expansion in R2, 337, 341, 342, 345
Circuit design, 322 Fibonacci sequence, 396
Computer graphics, 338 Fourier approximation(s), 285–287, 289, 292
Computer monitors, 190 Geometry of linear transformations in R2,
336–338, 341, 342, 345
Control system, 314
Hessian matrix, 375
Controllability matrix, 314
Jacobian, 145
Cryptography, 94–96, 102, 107
Lagrange multiplier, 34
Data encryption, 94
Laplace transform, 130
Decoding a message, 96, 102, 107
Least squares approximation(s), 281–284, 289
Digital signal processing, 172
linear, 282, 289, 292
Electrical network analysis, 30, 31, 34, 37,
quadratic, 283, 289, 292
150
Linear programming, 47
Electronic equipment, 190
Magnification in R2, 341, 342
Encoding a message, 95, 102, 107
Encryption key, 94 Mathematical modeling, 273, 274, 276
Parabola passing through three points, 150
Engineering and control, 130
Partial fraction decomposition, 34, 37
Error checking
Polynomial curve fitting, 25–28, 32, 34, 37
digit, 200
Quadratic form(s), 382–388, 392, 395, 398
matrix, 200
Quadric surface, rotation of, 388, 392
Feed horn, 223
Reflection in R2, 336, 341, 342, 345, 346
Global Positioning System, 16
Relative maxima and minima, 375
Google’s Page Rank algorithm, 86 Rotation
Image morphing and warping, 180 in R2, 303, 343, 393, 397
Information retrieval, 58 in R3, 339, 340, 342, 345
Internet search engine, 58 Second Partials Test for relative extrema, 375
Ladder network, 322 Shear in R2, 337, 338, 341, 342, 345
Locating lost vessels at sea, 16 Taylor polynomial of degree 1, 282
Movie special effects, 180 Three-point form of the equation of a plane,
Network analysis, 29–34, 37 141, 143, 146
Radar, 172 Translation in R2, 308, 343
Sampling, 172 Triple scalar product, 288
Satellite dish, 223 Two-point form of the equation of a line,
Smart phones, 190 139, 143, 146, 150
Televisions, 190 Unit circle, 253
Wireless communications, 172 Wronskian, 219, 225, 226, 229
PHYSICAL SCIENCES Newton’s Second Law of Motion, 164 Smokers and nonsmokers, 91
Acoustical noise levels, 28 Ohm’s Law, 322 Sports
Airplane speed, 11 Pendulum, 225 activities, 91
Area Planetary periods, 27, 274 Super Bowl I, 36
of a parallelogram using cross product, Primary additive colors, 190 Television watching, 91
   279, 280, 288, 294 RGB color model, 190 Test scores, 108
of a triangle Stiffness matrix, 64, 72
using cross product, 289 Temperature, 34
STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
using determinants, 138, 142, 146, Torque, 277
Traffic flow, 28, 33 Canonical regression analysis, 304
  150 Least squares regression
Astronomy, 27, 274 Undamped system, 164
Unit cell, 213 analysis, 99–101, 103, 107, 265, 271–276
Balancing a chemical equation, 4 cubic polynomial, 276
Beam deflection, 64, 72 end-centered monoclinic, 213
Vertical motion, 37 line, 100, 103, 107, 271, 274, 276, 296
Chemical quadratic polynomial, 273, 276
changing state, 91 Volume
of a parallelepiped, 288, 289, 292 Leslie matrix, 331, 378
mixture, 37 Markov chain, 85, 86, 92, 93, 106
reaction, 4 of a tetrahedron, 114, 140, 143
Water flow, 33 absorbing, 89, 90, 92, 93, 106
Comet landing, 141 Multiple regression analysis, 304
Computational fluid dynamics, 79 Wind energy consumption, 103
Work, 248 Multivariate statistics, 304
Crystallography, 213 State matrix, 85, 106, 147, 331
Degree of freedom, 164 Steady state probability vector, 386
Diffusion, 354 Stochastic matrices, 84–86, 91–93, 106, 331
SOCIAL SCIENCES AND
Dynamical systems, 396
Earthquake monitoring, 16 DEMOGRAPHICS
Electric and magnetic flux, 240 Caribbean Cruise, 106 MISCELLANEOUS
Flexibility matrix, 64, 72 Cellular phone subscribers, 107 Architecture, 388
Force Consumer preference model, 85, 86, 92, 147 Catedral Metropolitana Nossa Senhora
matrix, 72 Final grades, 105 Aparecida, 388
to pull an object up a ramp, 157 Grade distribution, 92 Chess tournament, 93
Geophysics, 172 Master’s degrees awarded, 276 Classified documents, 106
Grayscale, 190 Politics, voting apportionment, 51 Determining directions, 16
Hooke’s Law, 64 Population Dominoes, A2
Kepler’s First Law of Planetary Motion, 141 of consumers, 91 Flight crew scheduling, 47
Kirchhoff’s Laws, 30, 322 regions of the United States, 51 Sudoku, 120
Lattice of a crystal, 213 of smokers and nonsmokers, 91 Tips, 23
Mass-spring system, 164, 167 United States, 32 U.S. Postal Service, 200
Mean distance from the sun, 27, 274 world, 273 ZIP + 4 barcode, 200
Natural frequency, 164 Population migration, 106

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
Elementary Linear Algebra
8e Metric Version

Ron Larson
The Pennsylvania State University
The Behrend College

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
 Elementary Linear Algebra, Eighth Edition, Metric Version © 2017 Cengage Learning

Ron Larson ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright
herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by
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 Contents

1 Systems of Linear Equations 1

1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 2
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination 13
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations 25
Review Exercises 35
Project 1 Graphing Linear Equations 38
Project 2 Underdetermined and Overdetermined Systems 38

2 Matrices 39
2.1 Operations with Matrices 40
2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations 52
2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix 62
2.4 Elementary Matrices 74
2.5 Markov Chains 84
2.6 More Applications of Matrix Operations 94
Review Exercises 104
Project 1 Exploring Matrix Multiplication 108
Project 2 Nilpotent Matrices 108

3 Determinants 109
3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix 110
3.2 Determinants and Elementary Operations 118
3.3 Properties of Determinants 126
3.4 Applications of Determinants 134
Review Exercises 144
Project 1 Stochastic Matrices 147
Project 2 The Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 147
Cumulative Test for Chapters 1–3 149

4 Vector Spaces 151

4.1 Vectors in Rn 152
4.2 Vector Spaces 161
4.3 Subspaces of Vector Spaces 168
4.4 Spanning Sets and Linear Independence 175
4.5 Basis and Dimension 186
4.6 Rank of a Matrix and Systems of Linear Equations 195
4.7 Coordinates and Change of Basis 208
4.8 Applications of Vector Spaces 218
Review Exercises 227
Project 1 Solutions of Linear Systems 230
Project 2 Direct Sum 230

v
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vi Contents

5 Inner Product Spaces 231

5.1 Length and Dot Product in R n 232
5.2 Inner Product Spaces 243
5.3 Orthonormal Bases: Gram-Schmidt Process 254
5.4 Mathematical Models and Least Squares Analysis 265
5.5 Applications of Inner Product Spaces 277
Review Exercises 290
Project 1 The QR-Factorization 293
Project 2 Orthogonal Matrices and Change of Basis 294
Cumulative Test for Chapters 4 and 5 295

6 Linear Transformations 297

6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations 298
6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation 309
6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations 320
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity 330
6.5 Applications of Linear Transformations 336
Review Exercises 343
Project 1 Reflections in R 2 (I) 346
Project 2 Reflections in R 2 (II) 346

7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 347

7.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 348
7.2 Diagonalization 359
7.3 Symmetric Matrices and Orthogonal Diagonalization 368
7.4 Applications of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 378
Review Exercises 393
Project 1 Population Growth and Dynamical Systems (I) 396
Project 2 The Fibonacci Sequence 396
Cumulative Test for Chapters 6 and 7 397

8 Complex Vector Spaces (online)*

8.1 Complex Numbers
8.2 Conjugates and Division of Complex Numbers
8.3 Polar Form and DeMoivre’s Theorem
8.4 Complex Vector Spaces and Inner Products
8.5 Unitary and Hermitian Matrices
Review Exercises
Project 1 The Mandelbrot Set
Project 2 Population Growth and Dynamical Systems (II)

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 Contents vii

9 Linear Programming (online)*

9.1 Systems of Linear Inequalities
9.2 Linear Programming Involving Two Variables
9.3 The Simplex Method: Maximization
9.4 The Simplex Method: Minimization
9.5 The Simplex Method: Mixed Constraints
Review Exercises
Project 1 Beach Sand Replenishment (I)
Project 2 Beach Sand Replenishment (II)

10 Numerical Methods (online)*

10.1 Gaussian Elimination with Partial Pivoting
10.2 Iterative Methods for Solving Linear Systems
10.3 Power Method for Approximating Eigenvalues
10.4 Applications of Numerical Methods
Review Exercises
Project 1 The Successive Over-Relaxation (SOR) Method
Project 2 United States Population

Appendix A1
Mathematical Induction and Other Forms of Proofs

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Tests A7

Index A41

Technology Guide*

*Available online at CengageBrain.com.

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Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
 Preface
Welcome to the International Metric Version of Elementary Linear Algebra, Eighth Edition. For this metric version, the
units of measurement used in most of the examples and exercises have been changed from U.S. Customary units to metric
units. I did not convert problems that are specific to U.S. Customary units, such as dimensions of a baseball field or U.S.
postal rates. As with all editions, I have been able to incorporate many useful comments from you, our user. And while
much has changed in this revision, you will still find what you expect—a pedagogically sound, mathematically precise, and
comprehensive textbook. Additionally, I am pleased and excited to offer you something brand new— a companion
website at LarsonLinearAlgebra.com. My goal for every edition of this textbook is to provide students with the
tools that they need to master linear algebra. I hope you find that the changes in this edition, together with
LarsonLinearAlgebra.com, will help accomplish just that.

New To This Edition

NEW LarsonLinearAlgebra.com
This companion website offers multiple tools and
resources to supplement your learning. Access to
these features is free. Watch videos explaining
concepts from the book, explore examples, download
data sets and much more.

5.2 Exercises 253

true or False? In Exercises 85 and 86, determine
whether each statement is true or false. If a statement
is true, give a reason or cite an appropriate statement
from the text. If a statement is false, provide an example
that shows the statement is not true in all cases or cite an
appropriate statement from the text.
85. (a) The dot product is the only inner product that can be
defined in Rn.
(b) A nonzero vector in an inner product can have a
norm of zero.
86. (a) The norm of the vector u is the angle between u and
the positive x-axis.
(b) The angle θ between a vector v and the projection
of u onto v is obtuse when the scalar a < 0 and
acute when a > 0, where av = projvu.
87. Let u = (4, 2) and v = (2, −2) be vectors in R2 with
the inner product 〈u, v〉 = u1v1 + 2u2v2.
(a) Show that u and v are orthogonal.
(b) Sketch u and v. Are they orthogonal in the Euclidean
sense?
88. Proof Prove that
u + v2 + u − v2 = 2u2 + 2v2
for any vectors u and v in an inner product space V.
89. Proof Prove that the function is an inner product on Rn.
〈u, v〉 = c1u1v1 + c2u2v2 + . . . + cnunvn, ci > 0
Finding Inner Product Weights
90. Proof Let u and v be nonzero vectors in an inner
product space V. Prove that u − projvu is orthogonal
find c1 and c2 for the inner product of R2,
〈u, v〉 = c1u1v1 + c2u2v2
to v.
91. Proof Prove Property 2 of Theorem 5.7: If u, v,
such that the graph represents a unit circle as shown.
and w are vectors in an inner product space V, then
〈u + v, w〉 = 〈u, w〉 + 〈v, w〉.
92. Proof Prove Property 3 of Theorem 5.7: If u and v
are vectors in an inner product space V and c is any real
number, then 〈u, cv〉 = c〈u, v〉.
94. Use the result of Exercise 93 to find W⊥ when W is the
span of (1, 2, 3) in V = R3.
95. guided Proof Let 〈u, v〉 be the Euclidean inner
product on Rn. Use the fact that 〈u, v〉 = uTv to prove
that for any n × n matrix A,
(a) 〈ATAu, v〉 = 〈u, Av〉
and
(b) 〈ATAu, u〉 = Au2.
Getting Started: To prove (a) and (b), make use of both
the properties of transposes (Theorem 2.6) and the
properties of the dot product (Theorem 5.3).
(i) To prove part (a), make repeated use of the property
〈u, v〉 = uTv and Property 4 of Theorem 2.6.
(ii) To prove part (b), make use of the property
〈u, v〉 = uTv, Property 4 of Theorem 2.6, and REVISED Exercise Sets
Property 4 of Theorem 5.3.
The exercise sets have been carefully and extensively
96. CAPSTONE
(a) Explain how to determine whether a function
examined to ensure they are rigorous, relevant, and
defines an inner product.
(b) Let u and v be vectors in an inner product space V,
cover all the topics necessary to understand the
such that v ≠ 0. Explain how to find the orthogonal
projection of u onto v.
fundamentals of linear algebra. The exercises are
ordered and titled so you can see the connections
In Exercises 97–100,
between examples and exercises. Many new skill-
building, challenging, and application exercises have
been added. As in earlier editions, the following
97. y 98. y
3 4
pedagogically-proven types of exercises are included.
2
||u|| = 1 ||u|| = 1
1
x x
− 3 −2 2 3 −3 −1 1 3

93. guided Proof Let W be a subspace of the inner

product space V. Prove that the set
−2
−3 −4
• True or False Exercises
W⊥ = { v ∈ V: 〈v, w〉 = 0 for all w ∈ W } y y

is a subspace of V.
99.
5
100.
6 • Proofs
4
Getting Started: To prove that W⊥ is a subspace of ||u|| = 1 ||u|| = 1
V, you must show that W⊥ is nonempty and that the
closure conditions for a subspace hold (Theorem 4.5). −5 −3
1
1 3 5
x
−6 6
x • Guided Proofs
(i) Find a vector in W⊥ to conclude that it is nonempty.
(ii) To show the closure of W⊥ under addition, you −5
−4
−6
• Writing Exercises
need to show that 〈v1 + v2, w〉 = 0 for all w ∈ W
and for any v1, v2 ∈ W⊥. Use the properties of
inner products and the fact that 〈v1, w〉 and 〈v2, w〉
101. Consider the vectors
u = (6, 2, 4) and v = (1, 2, 0)
• Technology Exercises (indicated throughout the
are both zero to show this.
(iii) To show closure under multiplication by a scalar,
from Example 10. Without using Theorem 5.9, show
that among all the scalar multiples cv of the vector
text with )
proceed as in part (ii). Use the properties of inner v, the projection of u onto v is the vector closest to
products and the condition of belonging to W⊥. u—that is, show that d(u, projvu) is a minimum.
Exercises utilizing electronic data sets are indicated
by and found at CengageBrain.com.

9781305658004_0502.indd 253 8/18/15 10:21 AM

ix
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x Preface

Table of Contents Changes

Based on market research and feedback from users,
Section 2.5 in the previous edition (Applications of
2 Matrices
Matrix Operations) has been expanded from one section 2.1 Operations with Matrices
to two sections to include content on Markov chains. 2.2 Properties of Matrix Operations
2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix
So now, Chapter 2 has two application sections: 2.4 Elementary Matrices
Section 2.5 (Markov Chains) and Section 2.6 (More 2.5 Markov Chains
2.6 More Applications of Matrix Operations
Applications of Matrix Operations). In addition,
Section 7.4 (Applications of Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors) has been expanded to include content
on constrained optimization.

Trusted Features
Data Encryption (p. 94)

Computational Fluid Dynamics (p. 79)

®
For the past several years, an independent website—
CalcChat.com—has provided free solutions to all
odd-numbered problems in the text. Thousands of
students have visited the site for practice and help Beam Deflection (p. 64)

with their homework from live tutors. You can also

use your smartphone’s QR Code® reader to scan the
icon at the beginning of each exercise set to
access the solutions. Information Retrieval (p. 58)

Flight Crew Scheduling (p. 47)

Clockwise from top left, Cousin_Avi/Shutterstock.com; Goncharuk/Shutterstock.com;
39
Gunnar Pippel/Shutterstock.com; Andresr/Shutterstock.com; nostal6ie/Shutterstock.com
62 Chapter 2 Matrices

2.3 The Inverse of a Matrix 9781305658004_0201.indd 39 9/10/15 10:21 AM

Find the inverse of a matrix (if it exists). Chapter Openers

Use properties of inverse matrices.
Use an inverse matrix to solve a system of linear equations. Each Chapter Opener highlights five real-life
Matrices and their inverses
applications of linear algebra found throughout the
Section 2.2 discussed some of the similarities between the algebra of real numbers and chapter. Many of the applications reference the
the algebra of matrices. This section further develops the algebra of matrices to include
the solutions of matrix equations involving matrix multiplication. To begin, consider
the real number equation ax = b. To solve this equation for x, multiply both sides of
Linear Algebra Applied feature (discussed on the
the equation by a−1 (provided a ≠ 0).
next page). You can find a full list of the
ax = b
(a−1a)x = a−1b applications in the Index of Applications on the
(1)x = a−1b
x = a−1b inside front cover.
The number a−1 is the multiplicative inverse of a because a−1a = 1 (the identity
element for multiplication). The definition of the multiplicative inverse of a matrix is
similar.
Section Objectives
definition of the inverse of a Matrix
An n × n matrix A is invertible (or nonsingular) when there exists an n × n
A bulleted list of learning objectives, located at
matrix B such that
the beginning of each section, provides you the
AB = BA = In
where In is the identity matrix of order n. The matrix B is the (multiplicative) opportunity to preview what will be presented
inverse of A. A matrix that does not have an inverse is noninvertible (or
singular). in the upcoming section.
Nonsquare matrices do not have inverses. To see this, note that if A is of size
m × n and B is of size n × m (where m ≠ n), then the products AB and BA are of
different sizes and cannot be equal to each other. Not all square matrices have inverses. Theorems, Definitions, and
Properties
(See Example 4.) The next theorem, however, states that if a matrix does have an
inverse, then that inverse is unique.

theoreM 2.7 Uniqueness of an inverse Matrix Presented in clear and mathematically precise
If A is an invertible matrix, then its inverse is unique. The inverse of A is
denoted by A−1. language, all theorems, definitions, and properties
proof are highlighted for emphasis and easy reference.
If A is invertible, then it has at least one inverse B such that
AB = I = BA.
Assume that A has another inverse C such that Proofs in Outline Form
AC = I = CA.
In addition to proofs in the exercises, some
Demonstrate that B and C are equal, as shown on the next page.
proofs are presented in outline form. This omits
the need for burdensome calculations.

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 [ ]
1 0 . . . 0 c11 c12 . . . c1n
0 1 . . . 0 c21 c22 . . . c2n
.
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 0 . . . 1 cn1 cn2 . . . cnn
3.1 The Determinant of a Matrix By 113
the lemma following Theorem 4.20, however, the right-hand side of this matrix
is Q = P−1, which implies that the matrix has the form [I P−1], which proves the Preface xi
theorem.
Theorem 3.1 expansion by Cofactors

Discovery Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then the determinant of A is

n
In the next example, you will apply this procedure to the change of basis problem
from Example 3.
∑ det(A) = ∣A∣ = aijCij = ai1Ci1 + ai2Ci2 + . . . + ainCin ith row
Using the Discovery feature helps you develop j=1 expansion
Finding a transition Matrix
an intuitive understanding of mathematical
or
n jth column
det(A) = ∣A∣ = ∑ a C ij = a1jC1j + a2jC2j +
. . .+a C . See LarsonLinearAlgebra.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
concepts and relationships. i=1
ij nj nj expansion
Find the transition matrix from B to B′ for the bases for R3 below.
When expanding by cofactors, you do not need to find cofactors of zero entries, B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} and B′ = {(1, 0, 1), (0, −1, 2), (2, 3, −5)}
Technology Notes because zero times its cofactor is zero.
solution
aijCij = (0)Cij 5.3 Orthonormal Bases: Gram-Schmidt Process 255
Technology notes show how you can use =0
First use the vectors in the two bases to form the matrices B and B′.
D I S C O V E RY Example 1 describes another nonstandard orthonormal basis for R3.
graphing utilities and software programs
[ ] [ ]
1 0 0 1 0 2
The row (or column) containing the most zeros is usually the best choice for expansion
B= 0 1 0 and B′ = 0 −1 3
by cofactors. The next example demonstrates1. Let B = {(1, 0), (1, 2)} a nonstandard Orthonormal Basis for R 3
appropriately in the problem-solving process. and B′ = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.
this. 0 0 1 1 2 −5
3
Show that the set is an orthonormal basis for R .
[B′ B] and use Gauss-Jordan elimination to rewrite [B′ B] as
Many of the Technology notes reference the The Determinant Form the matrix Then form the matrix

2.
[of
B′ aBmatrix
]. of order 4 [I3 P−1]. S = {v , v , v } =
1
,
1
,0 , − , {(
√2 √2 2√2
,
2 2 1
, ,− , )( ) (3 )}
Technology Guide at CengageBrain.com.
1 2 3
√2 √2 6 6 3 3 3
Make a conjecture

[ ] [ ]
Find the determinant of 1 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 −1 4 2
about the necessity of SOlutiOn
0 −1 3 0 1 0 0 1 0 3 −7 −3

[ ]
1 −2 3 0 using Gauss-Jordan First show that the three vectors are mutually orthogonal.
1 2 −5 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 −2 −1
−1 1 0 2 elimination to obtain 1 1
A= . v1 ∙ v2 = −that
From this, you can conclude + +transition
0=0
0 2 0 3
the transition matrix 6 the
6 matrix from B to B′ is
P −1 when the change 2 2

[ ]
3 4 0 −2 −1 v14∙ v3 =2 − +0=0
of basis is from a z

nonstandard basis to P−1 = 3 −7 −33√ . 2 3√2

soluTion √2 √2 2√2
a standard basis. 1 −2 −1
v2 ∙ v3 = − − + =0
Notice that three of the entries in the third column are zeros. So, ,to− eliminate
,
2 , 2of
−some
6 6
, 2 2
3
Multiply P−1 byNow,
9
2 2 1
the coordinate ( 9
) 9 ( )
= [1 2 −1]T to see that the result is the
of 1x because
each vector ismatrix
3 3 3 k
the work in the expansion, use the third column. v2 of length
v3 same as that obtained in Example 3.
∣A∣ = 3(C13) + 0(C23) + 0(C33) + 0(C43) i
v1 = √v1 ∙ v1 = √12 + 12 + 0 = 1
v2 = √v2 ∙ v2 = √18 1 1
v1 j + 18 + 89 = 1
The cofactors C23, C33, and C43 have zero coefficients, so you need only find the
TeChnology 1 , linear = √v3 ∙ v3 = √9 is
v3Crystallography
4 4
+ the
1
9 + 9science
= 1. of atomic and molecular
cofactor C13. To do this, delete the first row and third columnx of A and evaluate
( )
1the y
,0
2 2 structure. In a crystal, atoms are in a repeating pattern
Many graphing utilities and algeBra

∣ ∣
determinant of the resulting matrix. So, S is an orthonormal set. The three vectors do not lie in the same plane (see Figure
called a lattice. The simplest repeating unit in a lattice is a
software programs can 3

−1 1 2
Figure 5.11
applied5.11), so you know that they span R . By Theorem 4.12, they form a (nonstandard)
unitbasis
orthonormal cell.for
Crystallographers
R3. can use bases and coordinate
find the determinant of
matrices in R3 to designate the locations of atoms in a
a square matrix. If you use C13 = (−1) 1+3
0 2 3 Delete 1st row and 3rd column.
unit cell. For example, the figure below shows the unit
a graphing utility, then you may −2

∣ ∣
3 4 an Orthonormal
cell known as end-centered Basis for P3
monoclinic.
see something similar to the
screen below for Example 4. −1 1 2 In P3 , with the inner product
The Technology guide at = 0 2 3 Simplify. 〈 p, q〉 = a0b0 + a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
CengageBrain.com can help 3 4 −2
you use technology to find a the standard basis B = { 1, x, x2, x3 } is orthonormal. The verification of this is left as an
exercise. (See Exercise 17.)
determinant. Expanding by cofactors in the second row yields

∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
A
1 2 −1 2 −1 1 One possible coordinate matrix for the top end-centered
Time-frequency analysis of irregular physiological signals,
[[1 -2 3 0 ] C13 = (0)(−1)2+1 + (2)(−1)2+2 + (3)(−1)2+3 linear is [xas
(blue) atom such = [12 12 1]cardiac
]B′ beat-to-beat
T
.
[-1 1 0 2 ] 4 −2 3 −2 3 4 rhythm variations (also known
algeBra as heart rate variability or HRV), canBrazhnykov
[0 2 0 3 ] be difficult. This is
Andriy/Shutterstock.com
[3 4 0 -2]] = 0 + 2(1)(−4) + 3(−1)(−7) applied because the structure of a signal can include multiple
det A periodic, nonperiodic, and pseudo-periodic components.
= 13. Researchers have proposed and validated a simplified HRV
39
analysis method called orthonormal-basis partitioning and
You obtain time-frequency representation (OPTR). This method can
detect both abrupt and slow changes in the HRV signal’s
∣A∣ = 3(13) 9781305658004_0407.indd 213
structure, divide a nonstationary HRV signal into segments
8/18/15 11:58 AM
= 39. that are “less nonstationary,” and determine patterns in the
HRV. The researchers found that although it had poor time
resolution with signals that changed gradually, the OPTR
method accurately represented multicomponent and abrupt
changes in both real-life and simulated HRV signals.
(Source: Orthonormal-Basis Partitioning and Time-Frequency
Representation of Cardiac Rhythm Dynamics, Aysin, Benhur, et al,
IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, 52, no. 5)
108 Chapter 2 Matrices Sebastian Kaulitzki/Shutterstock.com

2
9781305658004_0301.indd 113
Projects
8/18/15 2:14 PM

1 Exploring Matrix Multiplication

The table shows the first two test scores for Anna, Bruce, Chris, and David. Use the 9781305658004_0503.indd 255 8/18/15 4:07 PM
Test 1 Test 2
Anna 84 96
table to create a matrix M to represent the data. Input M into a software program or
a graphing utility and use it to answer the questions below.
1. Which test was more difficult? Which was easier? Explain.
Linear Algebra Applied
Bruce
Chris
56
78
72
83
2. How would you rank the performances of the four students? The Linear Algebra Applied feature describes a real-life
[] []
1 0
David 82 91
3. Describe the meanings of the matrix products M
0
and M
1
.

4. Describe the meanings of the matrix products [1 0 0 0]M and [0 0 1 0]M.

application of concepts discussed in a section. These
5. Describe the meanings of the matrix products M
1
1
and 12M
1
1
.[] [] applications include biology and life sciences, business
6. Describe the meanings of the matrix products [1 1 1 1]M and 14 [1 1 1 1]M. and economics, engineering and technology, physical
7. Describe the meaning of the matrix product [1 1 1 1]M
1
[]
sciences, and statistics and probability.
.
1
8. Use matrix multiplication to find the combined overall average score on
both tests.
9. How could you use matrix multiplication to scale the scores on test 1 by a
factor of 1.1?

2 Nilpotent Matrices
Capstone Exercises
Let A be a nonzero square matrix. Is it possible that a positive integer k exists such
that Ak = O? For example, find A3 for the matrix
The Capstone is a conceptual problem that synthesizes
key topics to check students’ understanding of the
[ ]
0 1 2
A= 0 0 1 .
0 0 0 section concepts. I recommend it.
A square matrix A is nilpotent of index k when A ≠ O, A2 ≠ O, . . . , Ak−1 ≠ O,
but Ak = O. In this project you will explore nilpotent matrices.
1. The matrix in the example above is nilpotent. What is its index?
2. Use a software program or a graphing utility to determine which matrices below
are nilpotent and find their indices.
Chapter Projects
(a)
0
0 [ 1
0 ] (b)
0
1[ 1
0 ] (c)
0
1
0
0 [ ] Two per chapter, these offer the opportunity for group
activities or more extensive homework assignments,
[ ] [ ]
0 0 1 0 0 0
[ ]
1 0
(d) (e) 0 0 0 (f) 1 0 0
1 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 and are focused on theoretical concepts or applications.
3. Find 3 × 3 nilpotent matrices of indices 2 and 3.
4. Find 4 × 4 nilpotent matrices of indices 2, 3, and 4. Many encourage the use of technology.
5. Find a nilpotent matrix of index 5.
6. Are nilpotent matrices invertible? Prove your answer.
7. When A is nilpotent, what can you say about AT? Prove your answer.
8. Show that if A is nilpotent, then I − A is invertible.

Supri Suharjoto/Shutterstock.com

9781305658004_020R.indd 108 9/8/15 8:41 AM

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
 Instructor Resources
Media
Instructor’s Solutions Manual
The Instructor’s Solutions Manual provides worked-out solutions for all even-numbered
exercises in the text.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero (ISBN: 978-1-305-65806-6)
is a flexible, online system that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank
content, create multiple test versions in an instant, and deliver tests from your LMS,
your classroom, or wherever you want. This is available online at cengage.com/login.

Turn the Light On with MindTap for Larson’s Elementary Linear Algebra
Through personalized paths of dynamic assignments and applications, MindTap is a
digital learning solution and representation of your course that turns cookie cutter into
cutting edge, apathy into engagement, and memorizers into higher-level thinkers.

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Tracking Students’ Progress in Real Time: Promote positive outcomes by
tracking students in real time and tailoring your course as needed based on
the analytics.
Learn more at cengage.com/mindtap.

xii
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 Student Resources
Print
Student Solutions Manual
ISBN-13: 978-1-305-87658-3
The Student Solutions Manual provides complete worked-out solutions to all
odd-numbered exercises in the text. Also included are the solutions to all
Cumulative Test problems.

Media
MindTap for Larson’s Elementary Linear Algebra
MindTap is a digital representation of your course that provides you with the tools
you need to better manage your limited time, stay organized and be successful.
You can complete assignments whenever and wherever you are ready to learn with
course material specially customized for you by your instructor and streamlined in
one proven, easy-to-use interface. With an array of study tools, you’ll get a true
understanding of course concepts, achieve better grades and set the groundwork
for your future courses.
Learn more at cengage.com/mindtap.

CengageBrain.com
To access additional course materials and companion resources, please visit
CengageBrain.com. At the CengageBrain.com home page, search for the ISBN
of your title (from the back cover of your book) using the search box at the top of
the page. This will take you to the product page where free companion resources
can be found.

xiii
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 Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the many people who have helped me during various stages
of writing this new edition. In particular, I appreciate the feedback from the dozens
of instructors who took part in a detailed survey about how they teach linear algebra.
I also appreciate the efforts of the following colleagues who have provided valuable
suggestions throughout the life of this text:

Michael Brown, San Diego Mesa College

Nasser Dastrange, Buena Vista University
Mike Daven, Mount Saint Mary College
David Hemmer, University of Buffalo, SUNY
Wai Lau, Seattle Pacific University
Jorge Sarmiento, County College of Morris.

I would like to thank Bruce H. Edwards, University of Florida, and

David C. Falvo, The Pennsylvania State University, The Behrend College, for
their contributions to previous editions of Elementary Linear Algebra.
On a personal level, I am grateful to my spouse, Deanna Gilbert Larson, for
her love, patience, and support. Also, a special thanks goes to R. Scott O’Neil.

Ron Larson, Ph.D.

Professor of Mathematics
Penn State University
www.RonLarson.com

xiv
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 1 Systems of Linear
Equations
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations
1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination
1.3 Applications of Systems of Linear Equations

Traffic Flow (p. 28)

Electrical Network Analysis (p. 30)

Global Positioning System (p. 16)

Airspeed of a Plane (p. 11)

Balancing Chemical Equations (p. 4)

Clockwise from top left, Rafal Olkis/Shutterstock.com; michaeljung/Shutterstock.com; 1

Fernando Jose V. Soares/Shutterstock.com; Alexander Raths/Shutterstock.com; edobric/Shutterstock.com
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
 1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination 13

1.2 Gaussian Elimination and Gauss-Jordan Elimination

Determine the size of a matrix and write an augmented or
coefficient matrix from a system of linear equations.
Use
 matrices and Gaussian elimination with back-substitution
to solve a system of linear equations.
Use
 matrices and Gauss-Jordan elimination to solve a system
of linear equations.
Solve a homogeneous system of linear equations.

Matrices
Section 1.1 introduced Gaussian elimination as a procedure for solving a system of
linear equations. In this section, you will study this procedure more thoroughly,
beginning with some definitions. The first is the definition of a matrix.

REMARK Definition of a Matrix

The plural of matrix is matrices. If m and n are positive integers, then an m × n (read “m by n”) matrix is a rectangular
When each entry of a matrix is array
a real number, the matrix Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 . . . Column n
is a real matrix. Unless stated

[ ]
otherwise, assume all matrices Row 1 a11 a12 a13 ... a1n
in this text are real matrices. Row 2 a21 a22 a23 ... a2n
Row 3 a31 a32 a33 ... a3n
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
Row m am1 am2 am3 ... amn

in which each entry, aij, of the matrix is a number. An m × n matrix has m rows
and n columns. Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters.

The entry aij is located in the ith row and the jth column. The index i is called the
row subscript because it identifies the row in which the entry lies, and the index j is
called the column subscript because it identifies the column in which the entry lies.
A matrix with m rows and n columns is of size m × n. When m = n, the matrix is
square of order n and the entries a11, a22, a33, . . . , ann are the main diagonal entries.

Sizes of Matrices

Each matrix has the indicated size.

−7
a. [2] Size: 1 × 1 b. [00 00] Size: 2 × 2 c. [πe 2
√2 4 ]
Size: 2 × 3

One common use of matrices is to represent systems of linear equations. The

REMARK
Begin by aligning the variables
in the equations vertically. Use
0 to show coefficients of zero
in the matrix. Note the fourth
matrix derived from the coefficients and constant terms of a system of linear equations
is the augmented matrix of the system. The matrix containing only the coefficients of
the system is the coefficient matrix of the system. Here is an example.
System Augmented Matrix Cofficient Matrix

[ ] [ ]
column of constant terms in x − 4y + 3z = 5 1 −4 3 5 1 −4 3
the augmented matrix. −x + 3y − z = −3 −1 3 −1 −3 −1 3 −1
2x − 4z = 6 2 0 −4 6 2 0 −4

Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Racconti storici
- Nuovo volume
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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eBook.

Title: Racconti storici - Nuovo volume

Author: Giambattista Bazzoni

Release date: December 22, 2023 [eBook #72470]

Language: Italian

Original publication: Milano: Manini, 1839

Credits: Barbara Magni and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
from images generously made available by Biblioteca
Nazionale Braidense - Milano)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RACCONTI

STORICI - NUOVO VOLUME ***
RACCONTI STORICI
NUOVO VOLUME
RACCONTI STORICI
DI

Giambattista Bazzoni
Nuovo Volume

MILANO
Presso Omobono Manini
1839
INDICE
 A
Sigismondo Raris
Consigliere.

M’è soave il credere, o Amico, che la tua Maria de Cheissing, la

beltà sì leggiadra ch’ora impalmata conducesti dalla patria vestfalica,
più grata essere ti debba per averla posta a soggiorno in parte
vaghissima di quella terra «ove fiorisce l’arancio,» come cantò il tuo
Goëthe, in questo ridente suolo lombardo, in questa bella Milano che
vi siede regina.
Ella fu qui non tua, e quando, reduce a’ suoi lari, questi campi e
questo cielo, che animava la rimembranza, le avranno sorriso in più
rosea tinta al pensiero, allora di certo l’immagine che nel suo vergine
cuore già sorgeva diletta, raccoglieva da quella luce poetica della
mente più vita d’amore. Quindi l’ebbra passione, quindi quella piena
d’affetti che rende ora sì lieti i tuoi giorni, i quali l’incolpabile e gentile
animo tuo merita numerare sempre ugualmente sereni e felici.
S’io dunque falsamente non m’appongo, entrambi prediligere dovete
vivamente questa contrada, pronuba e fautrice dell’avventurosa
vostra sorte. Ma ohimè! se all’innamorata fantasia qui altro non è
che splendido azzurro d’aure, verde di frondi, olezzo di fiori, se nelle
città grandeggiano allo sguardo monumenti sontuosi e l’arte assidua
ne fa elegante e festevole l’aspetto, molti e molti pur volsero
angosciosi tempi, che ogni cosa qui ammantarono di lugubre velo.
Tratto dal desìo di investigare le trapassate età, io stesso rimestava
le patrie vicende, e mi provai a dare colla penna forma e vita, dirò,
all’impressione che da quell’eco di potentissimi eventi mi derivava,
non m’annodando al rigore de’ fatti, chè troppo agevole riesce il
rilevarli nelle pagine stesse della storia. Ora concedimi adunque, che
ti presenti questi miei lavori, i quali io chiamo volentieri delineamenti
storici, e sarà il mio più caldo voto adempito, se essi varranno ad
ispiegare non senza qualche diletto allo spirito della tua amabile
Compagna, alcune delle scene che compongono la gran tela degli
avvenimenti svolti dai secoli in queste contrade, di cui è bello non
ignorare nè i luttuosi, nè i prosperi casi.
Io poi sarò lietissimo, se tu v’aggiungerai, siccome vero, il
convincimento che questa sia una prova della sincera rispondenza
alla tua cara amistà, di cui tanto mi pregio.
Giambattista Bazzoni.
 MILANO
NELL’ANNO 305 DELL’ERA

DELINEAMENTO A PANORAMA.

Seconda Roma.
ausonio.

Elmetti d’argento, lucenti loriche, clamidi purpuree, candide vesti

sacerdotali, aste d’oro recanti le insegne e le aquile romane, bighe
sonore, cavalli scalpitanti del lento procedere impazienti, clangore di
trombe, teste coronate di verdi serti, onda di popolo ammirante,
festoso; tale era il magnifico spettacolo che si presentava nell’ampia
via dell’antica Milano, che dal palazzo degl’Imperatori [1], correndo
presso l’Ippodromo o Circo [2], dirigevasi al tempio di Giove [3].
Il cielo era sereno, fulgidissimo il sole che irradiava la moltitudine
stipata nella via, e quella che ghermiva la sommità e le aperture
delle case, de’ palagi, e i peristilii de’ templi, recatasi spettatrice del
sontuoso trapassare di tanto corteo. Era quel dì il primo di maggio
segnato nelle tavole della storia a caratteri cubitali, poichè in tal
giorno due augusti, due imperatori romani dimettevano la porpora,
spogliandosi volonterosi della potestà più sovrana fra quante siano
state strette da mano d’uomo, per rientrare nel nulla della vita
privata. E questi due imperatori erano Diocleziano che in Nicomedia
cedeva la parte orientale dell’impero al Cesare Galerio, e
Massimiano Erculeo che in Milano ne cedeva la parte occidentale al
Cesare Costanzo Cloro.
Diocleziano, quello ch’ebbe il crudo vanto d’imporre il proprio nome
ad un’era tutta di sangue e di tormenti, l’era dei martiri, che oltre i
cristiani sterminò a centinaja di mila i popoli del settentrione, dai
Romani chiamati Barbari, quello che sdegnando come troppo
semplici gli imperiali ornamenti già assunti da un Augusto, da un
Nerone, da un Tiberio, da un Vespasiano, vestiva oro e seta e
cingeva non corona di lauro, ma diadema, facendosi appellare Giove
ed Eternità, ed erasi a modo dei monarchi asiatici circondato
d’eunuchi, quello stesso Diocleziano s’aveva l’inesplicabile vigor
d’animo di discendere spontaneo da tanta nube di fasto, di gloria e di
potenza per recarsi colla moglie in una casa di Salona sua terra
nativa a coltivare l’orto paterno. Ventun anni prima era egli salito al
soglio, evento da una Druidessa di Tongres vaticinatogli, e v’ascese
bagnandone i gradini di sangue, poichè non essendo che
comandante degli ufficiali di palazzo, quando Aprio, prefetto del
pretorio, uccise l’imperatore Numeriano reduce dalla Persia,
Diocleziano trapassò il petto ad Aprio, e fu egli quindi proclamato
all’impero.
Nel giorno stesso adunque che in Nicomedia scendeva Diocleziano
dal trono, ne scendeva pure Massimiano Erculeo in questa città di
Milano, ove aveva recata la sede dell’impero d’occidente. Costanzo
Cloro, il nuovo imperatore che succedeva a Massimiano, trovavasi
nelle Gallie, e frattanto in Milano veniva eletto Flavio Valerio Severo
al grado di Cesare, nome che davasi ai designati eredi del trono
imperiale.
Abbenchè gli abitanti di Milano già da alcuni anni solessero
ammirare lo sfoggio della romana magnificenza, pure quel giorno sì
straordinaria era la pompa, non che la causa di essa, che immenso
appariva il concorso de’ cittadini, a cui s’erano aggiunti
numerosissimi i forestieri convenuti nella capitale d’Insubria da altre
vicine parti, siccome dalle rive del Lario, del Ceresio, del Verbano,
da quelle del Ticino, dai laghi Gerundio ed Eghezzone [4] e dai colli
Orobii.
Nella adunata folla popolare tra l’indole varia delle fisonomie che
appalesavano le razze diverse degli abitatori in questa contrada
commisti, scernevansi più distinte e numerose quelle d’origine
gallica ed etrusca. I discendenti degli antichi occupatori delle Gallie
manifestavansi per chiome bionde, per occhi azzurri, per larghe e
rilevate ossa delle guancie, ed un’espressione del viso guerriera, e
tuttavia alquanto selvaggia; si riconoscevano i figli della gente
etrusca per volti affilati, pel mento acuto, gli occhi e i capelli
nereggianti, e per un’aria che indicava maggiore civiltà e coltura. Il
vestimento era pressochè in tutti consimile e sapeva del romano,
poichè non constava nella maggior parte che d’una tunica di lana sia
bianca, sia di tinta verde o rossa, a maniche brevi, stretta a mezzo il
corpo da una cintura di cuojo; i canuti vegliardi e alcuni pochi tra gli
uomini in età virile recavano folta e lunga la barba, e cadenti sugli
omeri i capegli. Qua e là distinguevasi frammischiato alla plebe
mediolanense, un Jutongio, un Alamanno, un Vandalo, un
Marcomanno, di quelli stati fatti prigionieri nelle ultime guerre e
dall’imperatore distribuiti come schiavi nelle provincie. Alcuni di essi
coprivansi ancora coi laceri avanzi de’ loro indumenti di pelli di topi
insieme congiunte o d’altri villosi animali delle germaniche e scitiche
selve; se ne scorgevano alcuni aventi a modo di collare un giro di
catena di ferro. Erano tutti ispidi, truci, e schiavi sì, ma di animo
indomato.
Fra mezzo al popolo nessuna toga patrizia: vedevansi queste
all’incontro formicare ne’ palazzi ove apparivano le matrone e le
donzelle coi cinti gemmati ed i pepli trapunti.
Là sugli elevati poggi e le finestre l’idioma più usato era il latino,
sebbene i Milanesi porgessero spesso occasione di burleschi motti e
sogghigni ai Romani, pronunciando quella lingua coll’accento
insubre, in cui principalmente dominava l’u acuto, che fu ne’ tempi
posteriori detto u lombardo, ma che venne innestato tra noi dagli
antichi Galli invasori. Mentre le dame e gli uomini di più raffinato
costume, favellando inframettevano nella lingua latina molte parole
greche, ch’era il vero linguaggio degli eleganti, nel dialogare del
popolo non udivasi neppure una sola terminazione latina, e sebbene
a tale idioma appartenessero la maggior parte delle parole usate
dalla plebe, esse venivano però detroncate e declinate in una foggia
speciale, che quella poi si fu che ingenerò così il nostro come molti
altri dialetti d’Italia.
Il Cesare Flavio Valerio Severo era alfine uscito dagli atrii imperiali.
Precedevano coi centurioni alla testa le coorti delle legioni di Ercole
e di Giove, create da Diocleziano per bilanciare il troppo funesto
potere de’ pretoriani; i cavalieri romani erano i più vaghi a vedersi,
seduti con somma agevolezza sui focosi cavalli, cui un semplice
drappo copriva il dorso; su quella gioventù vigorosa cupidi
s’affisavano gli sguardi femminili. Le loro nude e torose braccia, i
larghi petti ben annunziavano in essi i temuti vincitori dell’orbe intero.
Dietro tali schiere erano drappelli di guardie imperiali cogli scudi
d’argento, e la corta e larga spada svaginata; seguivano con rami di
sacre frondi i sacerdoti, indi sovra aurea quadriga, che cavalli
bianchissimi traevano, appariva coronato d’alloro il nuovo Cesare,
con lorica d’oro fulgidissima e purpureo manto.
La quadriga di Flavio Valerio Severo era seguita da un’altra salutata
più clamorosamente dai viva del popolo; stava in essa un uomo al
quale il crine incanutiva, abbronzato in volto, e le cui membra
appalesavano ancora tutta la forza e la solidità d’un atleta. Era
Massimiano l’abdicante imperatore, guerriero infaticabile, il recente
trionfatore de’ ribelli Bagaudi delle Gallie; gli stava alla destra suo
figlio Masenzio, alla sinistra la figlia Fausta entrambi predestinati alla
porpora. Di seguito a questo veniva sovr’alto carro un giovine per
nessun altro riguardo allora distinto, che per essere figlio di
Costanzo Cloro, il quale mentre doveva un giorno far perire a
Massimiano e Masenzio, doveva poi agli incestuosi ardori di Fausta,
assunta a consorte, sacrificare il suo proprio figliuolo. Susseguivano
in bell’ordine i proconsoli, e i magistrati del pretorio, e i tribuni e gli
edili, e chiudevano la schiera due coorti della legione italica.
Nel tempio fumavano l’are, il Flamine ordinava cadessero sui tori
ricinti di fiori le sacre bipenni: misti ai vapori del sangue delle vittime,
s’alzavano gli incensi odorosi. Eccheggiò d’inni e di preci il tempio, e
si proclamava il Cesare, pio clemente felice.
Compiti i sacri riti redivano i principi alla sede imperiale fra
l’acclamare del popolo incessante. Intanto dietro l’Ippodromo in una
via oscura, angusta, un branco di femmine dimesse e pochi uomini
di condizione servile, uscivano queti, silenziosi, da una casa
d’aspetto ruinoso, e in mezzo ad essi era un vecchio di veneranda
presenza, d’angelico sguardo. Mentre stavano per separarsi furono
scorti dai passanti nella via maggiore, ov’era la pompa trionfale e
cominciò tosto a serpeggiare una voce che ripeteva — i cristiani, i
cristiani. — In un istante quel nome circolò più rapido, fu in tutte le
bocche e s’alzò dalla massa intera, un urlo crescente, tonante, un
ruggito di detestazione, di minaccia, uno spaventoso barrito come
dicevasi allora. Egli era come se sbucato fosse da oscura caverna
un gruppo di tigri, di genii malefici, di furie, e non già misere
donnicciuole, poveri servi, vecchi cadenti, ch’altra colpa non
avevano agli occhi stessi di chi gli odiava, che di propagare ciò che
insegnava ad essi un divino maestro, l’amore cioè e l’uguaglianza fra
gli uomini, il perdono delle ingiurie, la carità senza limiti, virtù
coronate dalla speranza d’una perpetua felicità. Erano cristiani infatti
che uscivano col loro diacono da una specie di catacomba ove
dimoravano nascoste già da oltre due secoli le ossa di santa
Valeria [5], la moglie del primo martire milanese san Vitale, la madre
d’altri celebri martiri, Gervasio e Protasio, che tutti avevano
confessato col sangue all’epoca dell’impero di Nerone.
I cristiani nelle catacombe formavansi esatta la cronologia degli
imperatori romani colla serie dei cadaveri dei loro fratelli martirizzati.
La più abbondante messe d’umane reliquie s’era colà però da
pochissimo tempo accumulata, e l’aveva fornita Diocleziano.
Mandava quell’imperante a Mileto a consultare l’oracolo d’Apollo:
negava il dio il responso, e pronunciò la Pitonessa: che i giusti sparsi
sulla terra gli impedivano di dire il vero. Non potè a meno
Diocleziano di credere che i giusti, indicati dalla Pitonessa, i quali
ammutivano l’oracolo, fossero i cristiani, e determinò di finirla una
volta con questa, diceva esso, setta di stolti che adoravano un
giustiziato della Giudea, e che da ducent’anni stancavano
vanamente i carnefici dell’impero e impinguavano di loro carni le
fiere negli anfiteatri. Ordinò quindi una persecuzione, uno sterminio
generale de’ cristiani pel giorno delle feste terminali, che fu il 2 di
febbrajo dell’anno 302. Quindici giorni dopo non vi doveva essere
più traccia di cristianesimo come se non fosse mai apparso sulla
faccia della terra.
Abbenchè non si risparmiasse contro i seguaci del Nazareno alcun
genere di morte, e in tutto l’impero scorresse il sangue loro a torrenti,
quindici giorni dopo, il cristianesimo era più esteso e saldo di prima,
e quando tre anni e due mesi dopo quel famoso giorno 2 febbrajo
302, Diocleziano ritiravasi ad attendere alla coltura de’ fiori in
Salona, certamente avrà trovati colà non pochi cristiani impetranti sul
suo capo il perdono del cielo. Quest’era la consueta vendetta dei
discepoli di Cristo. Anche i miserelli che in Milano uscivano dal
sotterraneo ov’era la tomba di santa Valeria, al tremendo minacciare
delle turbe non opposero sicuramente in loro cuore che una prece,
un voto. E con quanta gioja avrebbero data essi pure la vita, se
avessero potuto sapere che là, fra quegli altieri romani, loro
infaticabili persecutori, eravi già quasi maturo per la sua alta
missione, un giovine, che quella che essi veneravano, obbrobriosa
immagine del patibolo, la croce, doveva stampare sulle insegne
imperiali, ed aveva ad inalzare al trono quella loro religione umile,
novella, sì abbietta e sprezzata, avanti a cui sarebbe andata fra poco
dispersa ed annichilita l’antica; se avessero insomma saputo che
dietro la imperiale quadriga di Massimiano veniva il fondatore
dell’impero d’oriente in Bisanzio, il figlio di sant’Elena, Costantino il
Grande!
Incolumi nella persona quella fiata i cristiani, nè altrimenti offesi che
dall’immane grido popolare traevano chi alla loro dimora per
riassumere assidui i domestici lavori, chi alle ignorate stanze degli
infermi recando ciò che nell’agape la carità di ciascuno aveva
tributato a sostentamento e sollievo di quelli che visitati dalla
sventura erano destituiti d’ogni umano soccorso.
Non così gli altri cittadini, che la giornata sacrarono al godimento de’
pubblici spettacoli di che il nuovo Cesare gratificava Milano. Nel già
accennato Ippodromo erano gare di cavalli ed ogni maniera di
giuochi circensi, nell’arena od anfiteatro costruito dal console Gabino
ai discobuli, ai lottatori succedevano le pugne de’ gladiatori, per le
quali tutti i ginnasii o scuole gladiatorie delle varie circonvicine città
avevano spediti a competitori i loro più valenti nell’arte di trucidarsi.
Lo spettacolo de’ gladiatori era il più accetto, il più avidamente
desiderato dal popolo, che dagli spalti, dalle gradinate, dal podio
accompagnava di fragorosissimi applausi il fortunato colpo, con cui
l’uno de’ combattenti, tutto all’altro immergeva l’acciaro nel petto, e
copriva di fischi, d’urla spietate, il trafitto che avesse osato morire
fuori delle regole dell’arte, cioè contorcendo o stirando sconciamente
le membra.
Giuochi s’eseguivano pure nel circo alla piazza detta Compitus [6];
quivi conveniva l’infima plebe. I precipui personaggi sedevano al
teatro [7], ove mimi e commedianti che avevano abbandonate le
scene capitoline rappresentavano nuove drammatiche composizioni,
con apologhi allusivi alla fausta giornata. Non mancava al tempo
medesimo gran numero di passeggianti sotto gli ombrosi viali del
Viridarium [8], luogo ove quotidianamente convenivano le più distinte
persone oziando a diporto.
Gli abitatori delle altre città, dei vichi, dei paghi, delle ville, qui la
prima volta accorsi quel dì solenne, passavano intanto curiosi e
stupiti da una piazza da una via nell’altra, ammirando gli eccelsi
palazzi, gli stupendi edificii, che le fiancheggiavano, de’ quali era sì
ricca Milano. Contemplavano l’arco romano [9] alta e massiccia mole
sostenuta da quattro grandi marmorei pilastri, fatta erigere dal
console Marco Marcello dopo la vittoria riportata sui Galli insubri;
fuori della porta Ticinense [10] passeggiavano lo stupendo porticato
delle terme, sorretto da magnifiche colonne corintie scanalate [11];
passavano rasente le forti mura che cingevano la città, munite ad
eguali spazii da quadrate torri che lo stesso imperatore Massimiano
aveva da poco fatto elevare; penetravano nel tempio del Sole alla
porta Argentea [12], in quella di Giano quadrifronte alla porta
Comense [13], visitavano la fabbrica delle monete [14], l’Accademia, la
via dei Sepolcri, e non potevano astenersi dall’esclamare concordi
ch’era milano una seconda roma.
 UN EPISODIO
DELL’ASSEDIO DEL BARBAROSSA

SECONDO DELINEAMENTO A PANORAMA.

Victa Victrix.

Due frati dell’ordine degli Umiliati, mentre ritornavano al loro

convento sull’ora dell’imbrunire nel giorno 24 d’agosto dell’anno
1158, giunti alla piazzuola di san Matteo alla Bacchetta vennero
scontrati da un uomo d’armi, che frettoloso correva alla loro volta.
Era costui tutto coperto di ferro, alto, complesso, rubesto all’aspetto,
e chiamavasi Masigotto della Cantarana. Arrestatosi ad essi di
contro il milite con voce affrettata:
— Ben trovati, padri santi, disse loro, io me ne andava appunto in
traccia di alcuno di voi.
— D’alcuno di noi?... e che bramate, valoroso fratello? — rispose
sorpreso all’inchiesta uno di que’ monaci.
— Siamo trecento di porta Nuova uniti alla Brera del Guercio nel
camerone dell’armeria, e vogliamo uscire questa notte per far prova
se quei del Barbarossa han duro il sonno.
— Ed in che modo possiamo noi prestarvi in tale impresa l’opera
nostra?
— Voi dovete venire a benedirci ed assolverci dai nostri peccati,
poichè non potendoci trascinare dietro il carroccio, se alcuno di noi
rimanesse di là del fossato, possa almeno rendere l’anima da buon
cristiano. Venite adunque affinchè stia colle nostre armi anco l’ajuto
del cielo. —
Aderirono ben tosto volonterosi i due frati all’invito, e seguirono il
soldato.
Milano, la più forte, la più prepotente città d’Italia di quel secolo,
vedevasi circondata da folte schiere nimiche che la stringevano, la
serravano irremissibilmente, come un cerchio di bragie ricinge senza
scampo uno scorpione che colla coda percosse la gente. Tanta furia
ostile era guidata intorno a Milano dall’imperatore Federigo I; ed a’
suoi agguerriti battaglioni, a que’ de’ regoli germanici suoi vassalli,
s’erano spontaneamente congiunti drappelli di combattenti di tutte le
circonvicine città, alle quali Milano era stata per lungo tempo
gravemente molesta. Unitamente ai Sassoni, ai Bavari, agli Svevi,
concorrevano quei di Como, di Lodi, di Cremona, di Pavia e d’altre
assai lontane terre, a formare più massiccia, più insolubile la catena
che accerchiava la nostra città, a cui agognavano dare l’ultima
stretta per vendicarsi delle tante patite ingiurie.
Gli edificii sacri, le ville, i casolari che stavano fuori e in prossimità
delle mura, erano stati cangiati in campali dimore pei capi
dell’esercito assediante. Sul più distinto fra essi vedevasi innalzato lo
stendardo imperiale, ed ivi aveva presa stanza lo stesso Federigo;
altrove era la bandiera del re di Boemia; più lungi quella
dell’arcivescovo di Colonia. Qua sorgeva l’insegna del palatino del
Reno, là quella del duca di Svevia, e lontano l’Austriaca, la Bavara,
la Vestfalica. Dall’uno all’altro degli isolati e distinti edificj occupati
dai condottieri dell’esercito, stendevansi a compire il grande giro le
file delle tende de’ soldati, avanti a cui erano ove steccati, ove
macchine militari, torri di legno con catapulte, mangani, petriere,
baliste. Dietro quella prima linea così ordinata allargavasi irregolare
l’accampamento per i pingui terreni suburbani, allora devastati
all’intutto, poichè li calcavano quindici mila cavalli d’Alemagna,
alcune migliaja d’Italiani e immenso numero di fanti.
Le mura che stavano a fronte a quell’oste minacciosa e ne
difendevano la città, erano in parte ancora quelle erette da
Massimiano Erculeo otto secoli addietro, ristaurate dalle ruine
cagionatevi dei Goti condotti da Uraja [15], ed in parte quelle
ricostruite ed ampliate da Ansperto che fu arcivescovo, e dir si
potrebbe signore della nostra città [16]. Quelle mura erano merlate;
vedevansi traforate da feritoje a diverse altezze, e s’avevano al
piede larga fossa e profonda. Sorgevano alte torri ove s’aprivano le
porte, e queste stavano chiuse in faccia ai nemico, servendo come
imposte a serrarle gli stessi ponti levatoj contesti da travi ferrate
rialzati colle pesanti catene.
Ardimentosi e forti i Milanesi, usi a provocare e cimentarsi di
continuo nelle zuffe coi vicini, non eransi punto inviliti d’animo, o
posti in ispavento per quella imponente congerie d’armati dal
teutonico imperatore raccolta e condotta ai loro danni. Ben lungi dal
sentirne tema molti de’ più baldi, insofferenti dello stare chiusi e
inoperosi, anelavano d’uscire a misurarsi coi nemici, a far prova con
essi di formidabili colpi, sdegnati in particolar modo che Lodigiani,
Comaschi, Pavesi, Bergamaschi e que’ delle altre città, tante fiate
vinte e sottomesse, ardissero ora presentarsi sotto le loro mura,
perchè s’avevano appoggio nel numeroso esercito straniero.
Frequenti sortite facevano quindi i Milanesi, mostrando agli
assedianti con qual fatta d’uomini avessero a contendere.
Di quei tempi tutti i cittadini in Milano erano combattenti. Venivano
divisi per parrocchia, e quelli spettanti a ciascuna parrocchia
formavano una legione che avevasi il proprio capo. Le parrocchie poi
o legioni che appartenevano ad una delle parti o sezioni della città,
che prendeva nome dalla porta a cui corrispondeva, costituivano un
corpo distinto, che s’aveva una speciale bandiera; e tal corpo
appellavasi col nome della porta stessa. Tutta la milizia poi aveva un
capitano generale, a cui erasi ben lungi dal prestare allora quella
cieca obbedienza che vediamo osservarsi di presente sia negli ordini
della milizia urbana, sia nella soldatesca propriamente detta. Il
capitano generale de’ Milanesi era in que’ giorni il conte Guido
Biandrate novarese.