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Energy Relations and
Policy Making in Asia
Edited by Leo Lester
Energy Relations and Policy Making in Asia
 Leo Lester
Editor

Energy Relations and

Policy Making in Asia
Editor
Leo Lester
King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and
Research Center (KAPSARC)
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

ISBN 978-981-10-1093-4 ISBN 978-981-10-1094-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1094-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016946999

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Cover image © philipus / Alamy Stock Photo

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd.
 With thanks to
Samantha Gross—KAPSARC
Tim Boersma—Brookings Institution
Mohammed Elnezi—Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
 FOREWORD

Energy demand and North East Asia are unequivocally connected. Over the
course of the last decade, the rise of China has been a particularly impor-
tant driver of global energy demand—for oil, coal, nuclear, natural gas, and
renewable energy. At the same time, the current slump in oil and natural gas
prices provides a gentle reminder that sky in fact is not the limit, and slowing
demand growth, again particularly in China, forms one of the chief reasons
for today’s oversupply. Still, forecasts of institutions like the International
Energy Agency suggest that in the coming decades a very significant share
of global energy demand growth will come from Asia, even though many
important questions remain unanswered as to the accuracy of long-term
demand forecasts. By all measures, North East Asia (NEA)—China, Japan,
Korea, and Taiwan—will play an important role in that trend, China because
of its state of economic development and the rest because they are advanced
economies that are almost entirely import dependent.
Given their massive and low-cost proven reserves of fossil fuels, in particular
oil and natural gas, members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)—
Saudi Arabia, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain—
play a key role in meeting aforementioned energy demand. Increased energy
trade between the GCC and NEA has been stimulated further over the last
ten years by US development of large-scale extraction of oil and natural gas
from shale rock. This development has fundamentally altered the energy
balance of the world’s largest energy consumer, with ripple effects around
the world. The US Energy Information Administration (EIA) projects that
from 2016 onward, the US will become a net exporter of natural gas. It
also notes that from 2008 to 2014, the country’s production of crude oil

vii
viii FOREWORD

rose by over 4 million barrels per day, reaching over 9 million barrels per
day in the spring of 2015. Even though the current price slump puts tre-
mendous pressure on US producers and may lead to a production decline
of as much as 1 million barrels per day through 2017, by all measures these
events are extraordinary and have shattered conventional wisdom about
global energy markets.
Analysts and policy-makers will be grappling with the long-term conse-
quences of these shifts for many years to come. For one, as countries in the
GCC are increasingly eyeing NEA as a key market for energy exports, how
does that affect mutual relations among the countries involved? As energy
trade between these two regions increases, does their mode of cooperation
move beyond what has historically been merely a transactional relation-
ship? This book contains an exploration of questions such as these. In
order to address the implications of these projected new energy flows and
relationships, the King Abdullah Petroleum Studies and Research Center
(KAPSARC) over the course of 2015 brought together a wide range of
talented scholars from various research institutes and universities from
both regions. These scholars wrote papers that were debated among peers
in a number of workshops held in Hong Kong, Bahrain, Tokyo, Riyadh,
and Beijing.
The result is the book that you have in hand. It provides a rich and
detailed account and characterization of existing energy relations between
various members of the GCC and countries from NEA. In doing so, it is a
valuable contribution to the literature on mutual trade, domestic policies,
energy security, and environmental considerations. The book contains a
wide variety of case studies, ranging from increasing oil trade between the
GCC and China, joint stockpiling, ramping up solar capacity in Qatar, and
increasing energy efficiency. As such, this book provides a comprehensive
overview of the interconnectedness between the members of the GCC
and the countries in NEA. In addition, the studies demonstrate that there
is substantial room for further trade enhancement. Some of these oppor-
tunities are being debated actively, such as energy subsidy reform in the
GCC, which would increase opportunities for exports of hydrocarbons
while providing opportunities for NEA countries to market energy effi-
ciency technologies in the GCC.
For policy-makers, each chapter begins with a brief summary and ends
with a clear set of policy insights that could help those involved promote
and optimize energy trade while removing trade barriers. What the long-
term consequences of these actions will be, and whether current relations
 FOREWORD ix

will move beyond the economic realm to include political and strategic
issues, should be a topic of further research. This book lays the ground-
work for that research and makes a valuable contribution to discussions on
energy trade between the GCC and NEA.

Fellow and Acting Director of the Energy Security Tim Boersma

and Climate Initiative, Brookings Institution
December 2015
 CONTENTS

1 Introduction 1
Duc Huynh and Yugo Nakamura

Part I Trade Patterns and their Consequences

for Connectivity 9

2 Effects of Oil Price Volatility on Bilateral Trade

Between China and the GCC 11
Xiaowei Zhao, Taoya Li, and Dayu Zhai

3 Potential Impact of Methane Hydrate Development

on GCC and NEA Energy Trade 31
Ahmed Kiani, Toufic Mezher, Steven Griffiths, and
Sameh El Khatib

4 GCC-NEA Oil Trade: Competition in Asian Oil Markets

and the Russian ‘Pivot’ East 55
Shahad Al-Arenan, Nader AlKathiri, Yazeed Al-Rashed,
Tilak K. Doshi, Ziyad Alfawzan, Sammy Six, and
Vitaly Yermakov

xi
xii CONTENTS

5 Market and Hierarchical Interactions between

East and West Asian Oil Sectors: Theory and Practice 75
Omar Al-Ubaydli

6 From GCC-Asian Energy-Oriented Trade to Comprehensive

Trade and Investment Links: A Case Study of Taiwan 97
Chang-chen Yeh, Po-yao Kuo, Ruei-he Jheng, Chien-chou Chen,
Yu-lin Liu, and Chi-yuan Liang

Part II Domestic Policies and Their Consequences for

Connectivity 121

7 Changes in Chinese Natural Gas Demand

and Their Potential Impacts on the Relationship
between China and the GCC Countries 123
Hanxiong Zhu, Kexi Pan, and Zheng Chang

8 Impacts of PV Adoption in Qatar on Natural Gas

Exports to Northeast Asia and Ensuring
Environmental Benefits 143
Antonio P. Sanfilippo and Larry R. Pederson

9 The Dynamics of Energy Geopolitics in the Gulf

and Qatar’s Foreign Relations with East Asia 161
Remi Piet and Steven Wright

Part III Energy Security and Its Consequences for

Connectivity 181

10 Evaluating the Impact of Oil Exports from

GCC Countries on China’s Oil Security 183
Qiang Ji and Ying Fan

11 Assessing the Impact of Political Disruptions on Crude

Oil Trade 203
Kenneth White, Brian Efird, and Sadeem Alhosain
 CONTENTS xiii

12 Commercial Stockpiling: An Alternative for Joint

Stockpiling of Oil in North East Asia 227
Sang Yoon Shin

Part IV The Environment and Its Consequences

for Connectivity 243

13 Energy Embodiments of the GCC and NEA Countries 245

Zhan-Ming Chen and Tianyi Li

14 Analysis of Cooperation Potential on Low-Carbon

Energy Between GCC and NEA 263
Tingting Zhang

15 An Era of Collaboration to Promote Energy Efficiency 285

Yukari Yamashita and Rejean Casaubon

16 Conclusion 305
Leo Lester

Index 311
 CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Author names have been shown in the Western style (given name before family name)
throughout for the avoidance of confusion for English-language readers.
Ahmed Kiani is currently a Post-Doctoral Associate in Department of Engineering
at New York University, United Arab Emirates. Previously, he worked as a Post-
Doctoral Researcher in Engineering System and Management at Masdar Institute of
Science and Technology, United Arab Emirates. He received a Bachelor of Engineering
in Electrical Engineering from McGill University, Canada, in 2007. He earned his
Master of Science in Nanotechnology from University College London, United
Kingdom, in 2008 and a Doctorate of Philosophy in Electrical & Electronic
Engineering from University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, in 2014. Dr. Kiani has
previously served as head of renewable energy consulting in UAE/Pakistan and as an
investment banker in London, United Kingdom.
Antonio P. Sanfilippo is Research Director for Measurement Science and Analytics
in the Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa
University. His current research focus is on solar resources and smart grid integra-
tion. From 2003 to 2014, Dr. Sanfilippo was Chief Scientist at the Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory in the USA, where he directed a four-year research
programme on predictive analytics and led research projects funded by the
Department of Homeland Security, the National Institutes of Health, and the
National Science Foundation. Dr. Sanfilippo has MA and MPhil degrees in
Anthropological Linguistics from Columbia University in the USA and a PhD in
Cognitive Science from the University of Edinburgh in the UK.
Brian Efird, joined KAPSARC in 2013, where he is a Senior Research Fellow and
the Programme Director for the Human Geography of Energy. He is responsible for
managing a research programme that comprises a multi-disciplinary, multi-national

xv
xvi CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

team of researchers who produce innovative, policy-relevant research on energy

issues that contribute to societal welfare. His research teams focus on a variety of
topics, including China, India, the GCC, East Africa, and local content.
Chang-chen Yeh, PhD is an assistant research fellow at the WTO and RTA Center,
CIER, Taiwan. His research interests include political economy, comparative polit-
ical economy, international political economy, politics of developing areas, political
and economic affairs in Asia-Pacific and Latin America region, international rela-
tions, media and politics, and trade and environment.
Chi-yuan Liang is a well-known energy economist domestically and internationally.
He is the Chairman of the Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Research (CIER),
Chair Professor of the National Central University, Supervisor of the Central Bank,
and Managing Director of Chinese Petroleum Corporation. He has also worked as
research fellow of the Institute of Economics in Academia Sinica, Senior Adviser of
National Security Council, and Minister without Portfolio for the Executive Yuan.
His research interests focus on energy economics, environmental economics, eco-
nomic modeling and forecast, industrial economics, and productivity analysis.
Chien-chou Chen is a research assistant at the Taiwan WTO and RTA Center,
Chung-hua Institution for Economic Research (CIER). His research interests
focus on issues of trade and environment, energy efficiency policies, and security
studies.
Dayu Zhai is an assistant analyst at the State Information Center. He received his
Bachelor’s degree in Public Policy at Peking University, China, and his MSc in
International Political Economy at the University of Edinburgh, UK. His main
focus areas are in international political economy, trade, and regional integration.
Duc Huynh works in the Strategic Planning Department at Saudi Aramco. He
was previously an oil and gas consultant based in Malaysia and Washington DC. He
has a BA in East Asian studies from the University of California Los Angeles and a
Masters in Economics from the University of California San Diego.
Hanxiong Zhu is a Research Associate at Fudan University Energy Research
Center. He has focused his research on energy policy of China, especially on
Chinese coal supply chain and coal-related CO2 emission accounting. He partici-
pated, as a key researcher, in many national and regional level research projects on
climate change and adaptation policy in China, national coal and regional energy
planning.
Kenneth White was formerly a Senior Research Analyst at KAPSARC. Leveraging his
background in quantitative and qualitative analysis, his research centres around apply-
ing data and statistics to generate actionable policy insights in fields as diverse as con-
sumer behaviour and geopolitics. He holds a Masters in Public Policy from Stanford
University and a Bachelor of Arts in Economics, also from Stanford University.
 CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS xvii

Kexi Pan is a Professor and Vice Director of Fudan University Energy Research
Center. He has been committed to coal industry policy and technology for more than
thirty years, especially the accounting and analysis of basic coal data for China. He also
led many national and several provincial energy strategy planning and policy research.
Larry R. Pederson currently serves as Research Director for Energy Security at the
Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute, Hamad Bin Khalifa University,
focusing on topics in photovoltaics, energy storage, and grid integration. Prior to
joining QEERI, Pederson held the position of Laboratory Fellow at Pacific
Northwest National Laboratory in Richland, Washington, USA, where he was
employed from 1978 to 2009 and from 2012 to 2014. While at PNNL, Pederson
has served as past Directors of the Materials Science and Engineering Division and
of the High-Temperature Electrochemistry Center. Pederson received his PhD in
physical and surface chemistry from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
Nader AlKathiri is a Research Associate at KAPSARC. His current work focuses
on understanding inter-regional price differentials of crude oil through spatial
modeling. He recently co-developed the KAPSARC Global Oil Trade Model
(GOTM), a spatial simulation model of the crude oil market. Nader holds a BSc in
Operations Research from King Saud University and an MS in Applied Mathematics
and Computational Science from KAUST.
Omar Al-Ubaydli is the Programme Director for International and Geo-Political
Studies at the Bahrain Center for Strategic, International and Energy Studies
(DERASAT), an affiliated Associate Professor of economics at George Mason
University, and an affiliated Senior Research Fellow at the Mercatus Center.
Al-Ubaydli previously served as a member of the Commonwealth of Virginia’s
Joint Advisory Board of Economists and a Visiting Professor of Economics at the
University of Chicago. He earned his BA in economics from the University of
Cambridge and his MA and PhD in economics from the University of Chicago.
Po-yao Kuo is currently the section manager of the Energy Technology
Development Center at the CTCI Foundation, Taiwan. Before working at the
CTCI Foundation, he was an assistant research fellow of the Second Research
Division, Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Research. Dr. Kuo’s research
interests include energy policies, energy trends, energy security, policies, and tech-
nology assessment for energy saving and greenhouse gas emission reduction, elec-
tricity generation and emissions, vehicle energy use and emissions, and vehicle
life-cycle analysis.
Qiang Ji is an associate professor at the Center for Energy and Environmental
Policy research, Institute of Policy and Management, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
His research fields include energy security strategy management, energy economics,
and international energy trade. He has carried out and been involved in over 10
research projects and has published over 30 papers in peer-reviewed journals.
xviii CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Réjean Casaubon is a Councilor for The Institute of Energy Economics Japan

(IEEJ) advising the chairman on strategies to increase IEEJ’s visibility and think-
tank capacity on energy. Before joining the Institute, three years ago, he served as
a civil servant (economist) for the Department of Natural Resources and the
Ministry of Environment for the Government of Canada. Prior to his retirement,
he managed a modeling team providing advice based on analyses of energy and
climate change policies (carbon dioxide). Over the years, he has acquired a consid-
erable knowledge of the oil, natural gas, coal, and electricity markets, including
associated greenhouse gas emissions.
Remi Piet is Assistant Professor of International Affairs and Political Economy at
Qatar University where he coordinates research initiatives on energy, economics,
and sustainable development for the Gulf Studies Center. He holds a PhD from
the University of Miami and an MBA and an MA in International Relations from
Laval University together with an MSc in International Economics from Université
Paris La Sorbonne. He has authored more than a dozen scholarly articles and book
chapters and wrote or co-edited several books. Remi Piet has worked for several
international organizations in Europe, the Middle East, and the Americas such as
the United Nations Environmental Programme and is a regular contributor for Al
Jazeera, BBC, France 24, El Tiempo de Bogota, and Al Arabiya.
Ruei-he Jheng is an analyst at the Third Research Division, CIER, Taiwan. His
research interests include energy economics, environmental economics, economic
modeling, industrial economics, and productivity analysis.
Sadeem Alhosain is a Senior Research Analyst focusing on Energy and
Demographic changes, Energy Information Management, and Energy Politics.
She holds an MS in E-Business Systems from City University London.
Sameh El Khatib is an Assistant Professor in Engineering Systems Management
at Masdar Institute of Science and Technology. He received his Bachelors and
Masters in Electrical Engineering from McGill University, Canada, in 2002 and
2005, respectively. He received his Doctorate of Philosophy degree from McGill
University in 2011, where his research interests included power system economics,
electricity market restructuring and planning, greenhouse gas regulation, as well as
decision-making in the energy sector, specifically in the context of oligopolistic
electricity markets. Dr. Khatib has previously worked as a management consulting
associate at Booz & Co. Currently, his research group focuses on unconventional
hydrocarbons, on cyber/physical sustainability of power systems, and on modeling
of the energy-water-food nexus, among others.
Sammy Six is a Research Associate at KAPSARC covering oil and gas markets.
Before joining KAPSARC, he worked as a researcher with a leading think tank in the
Netherlands. Sammy holds Master degrees in International Politics and American
Studies from Ghent University and Antwerp University in Belgium, respectively.
 CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS xix

Sang Yoon Shin is an associate research fellow of Korea Energy Economics Institute.
His recent research includes “National Network through International Energy
Organizations,” “Oil Emergency Response Policy of Major Importing Countries
and Implications,” and “Cooperative Network of Oil Companies in East Asia.” He
is geographically interested in the Middle East and Central Asia. He received his
PhD degree from the Katz Graduate School of Business, University of Pittsburgh.
Shahad Al-Arenan is a Research Analyst with KAPSARC. She holds a BSc in
Electrical and Computer Engineering from Effat University.
Steven Griffiths is the Vice President for Research and a Professor of Practice at
Masdar Institute of Science and Technology. Dr. Griffiths has overall responsibility
for research, including large-scale, collaborative research programmes and centres,
research development, sponsored programmes, technology transfer, and research
laboratories. Additionally, Dr. Griffiths has an active role in multiple industry,
research, and innovation bodies outside of Masdar Institute, including the Middle
East Solar Industry Association Board of Directors and the Zayed Future Energy
Prize Selection Committee. Dr. Griffiths holds a Doctor of Philosophy in Chemical
Engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and an MBA
from the MIT Sloan School of Management.
Steven Wright is an Associate Professor of International Relations and Gulf
Studies at Qatar University. His areas of research focus on the comparative politics
and international relations of the Persian Gulf states, energy security, and US for-
eign policy toward the Middle East. Dr. Wright completed his education in the
United Kingdom, graduating from the University of London, and also Durham
University where he completed his doctorate. Dr. Wright has held research fellow-
ships at the London School of Economics, Exeter University, and also University
of Durham. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Asiatic Society of the United
Kingdom.
Taoya Li is a director in the International Division of the State Information
Center. She graduated from the University of International Business and
Economics of China with a Master’s degree in Arts. Her research focus is interna-
tional trade, public policy, and urban planning. She is also a coordinator and one
of the authors in research projects with the World Bank and OECD on innovation
and investment climate.
Tianyi Li is currently a junior student in School of Economics, Renmin University
of China. She is studying for dual degrees in economics and mathematics. She has
participated in several international academic exchange seminars, including one in
Doshisha University in Japan. Li also actively participates in academic competi-
tions and has achieved many awards, including innovation and entrepreneurship
practice of college students, mathematical modeling contest, undergraduate aca-
demic forum, the national energy Internet challenge match, and so on.
xx CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Tilak K. Doshi is Senior Research Fellow at KAPSARC. He completed his PhD

in Economics at the University of Hawaii under an East-West Center scholarship.
His focus is on oil and gas markets, and he has worked in a number of international
oil companies in marketing and corporate planning functions. He has authored
two books and several articles on energy economics.
Tingting Zhang is a researcher at International Energy Research Center (IERC)
on Chinese energy security. Her research interests focus on the life-cycle assess-
ment of energy system, as well as Chinese energy diplomacy. She has a Doctor’s
degree in Mechanical Engineering from Shanghai Jiao Tong University.
Toufic Mezher is a Professor of Engineering Systems and Management at Masdar
Institute of Science and Technology. Before joining Masdar Institute, he was a
Professor of Engineering Management at the American University of Beirut from
1992 to 2007. He earned a Bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering from University
of Florida, a Master and a Doctor of Science in Engineering Management from
George Washington University in 1988 and 1992, respectively.
Vitaly Yermakov is an expert on Russian oil and natural gas markets with 20
years of industry experience. In 2008–15, he was Research Director with CERA
and IHS Energy, focusing on Russia’s oil and natural gas markets, analysis of
Russia’s investment climate, the tax and regulatory environment, and economic
modeling. Mr. Yermakov is the author of over 50 CERA and IHS Energy strategic
reports. He also led numerous consulting projects for the CERA and IHS Energy
clients. Mr. Yermakov holds a Master’s degree from Duke University and a PhD
from Samara State University.
Xiaowei Zhao is an associate research fellow of State Information Center. He
graduated from the Renmin University of China with a doctoral degree in eco-
nomics. He has published more than 10 papers in the core journals like Finance
and Trade Economics, Journal of International Trade, etc. He is the author of
Local Environmental Regulations and Regional Economic Growth: Theory, Proof
and Policy and Research on Industrial Economy Under the Energy Binding in the
Resource-rich Regions: Xinjiang as an Example.
Yazeed Al-Rashed is a Senior Research Analyst at KAPSARC. Yazeed co-
developed the KAPSARC GOTM. He has previously published work on energy
efficiency in the OPEC Energy Review. He holds an SB in Chemical Engineering
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and an MS in Energy Systems
from Columbia University.
Ying Fan is the Dean of the School of Economics and Management at Beihang
University. She attended Cornell University in the USA as a visiting scholar from
2004 to 2005. Her research and teaching fields include energy-environment-econ-
omy system modeling, energy finance, climate change, energy and environmental
 INTRODUCTION 7

Overseas equity barrels are still foreign oil and still must be transported
home, although most is sold on the open market.
The recent softening of crude prices and the industry’s perception that
prices will be ‘lower for longer’ due to an oversupplied market, may ame-
liorate some of NEA’s energy security concerns, at least while the current
price environment persists. But NEA’s political mandate to address energy
security is not likely to go away. Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan will
likely seek to expand their ownership of foreign equity resources. Japan,
for example, aims to achieve a minimum ‘equity production-import ratio’
of 40 percent by 2030 and offers financial support to Japanese upstream
companies, irrespective of geographic location. At present, GCC coun-
tries present a difficult environment for the joint ventures and investments
needed to secure equity barrels. Those countries that do allow foreign
equity are clearly investment priorities for NEA, though still not without
their challenges.

INVESTMENTS FOR THE FUTURE

Cross regional investments that yield economic benefits deepen economic
interdependency. Significant investments have emerged—the number of
Chinese companies in Dubai has reached around 3,000, up from just 18 in
2005. These numbers are likely to grow even more in the coming years.
Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and UAE have or are studying downstream
investments in NEA countries. For example, Saudi Aramco has numerous
downstream joint ventures in China, Japan, and South Korea, enabling it
to expand its reach towards end-user markets. Within Saudi Arabia, Saudi
Aramco operates refining and petrochemical joint ventures with Japanese
and Chinese companies. Saudi Aramco has expressed interest in further
investment in China and sees Chinese companies as well-positioned to
grasp investment opportunities in Saudi Arabia and the broader Middle
East. Owing to long-standing business relationships, Kuwait Petroleum
has partnered up with Japanese companies to build a grassroots refinery
in Vietnam. The linkages between West and East Asia are clearly aimed at
cementing GCC supplies to the Asian market.
Beyond just the GCC and NEA, the Middle East and Asia are two of
the fastest growing energy centres. IEEJ forecasts primary energy con-
sumption in Asia and the Middle East to grow at a compounded annual
growth rate of 2.5 and 2.3 percent, respectively, between 2013 and 2020,
while the global growth rate is forecast at 1.7 percent. For GCC, greater
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Whitehouse, Cope, 72
Willcocks, Sir William: work of, on Rosetta Barrage, 48, 49; report of, on Nile
Dam, 73; cited, 128; otherwise mentioned, 44, 64
Wingate, Sir Reginald: position of, 185; age of, 197; quoted on possibilities of
irrigation, 235, 236
Wodehouse, General, 166

Yusuf Pasha, 162

Zeila, 153
Zifta Barrage, 87, 88
Zubehr, 150, 152, 155, 157, 163
 THE END

BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD

 MAP OF
EGYPT and the SOUDAN
1904

London: Stanford’s Geogl. Estabt.

(Large-size)
London: Edward Arnold.
 FOOTNOTES:

[1]1 metre = about 39 inches.

[2]A cubic metre of water equals, roughly, 1 ton.
[3]For the purpose of illustration, it is interesting to compare the
discharge of the Thames at Teddington:
Cubic Metres per
Second.
During June the average discharge for the twenty
35
years ending 1902 was
The average in June, 1903, was 178
The discharge on June 21, 1903, was 387
On February 21, 1900, it was 533
And on November 18, 1894 (greatest on record), it
1,065
was
I have given the discharge in cubic metres per second, the unit
generally in use on the Nile. On the Thames the figures are
usually given in gallons per day, which sounds much more
imposing. If the number of cubic metres per second is multiplied
by about 1,900,000, it gives approximately the number of gallons
per day. But, after all, the discharge of the Thames in June, 1903,
was not so very far below that of the Nile during the same month.
[4]The Egyptian peasant, however, refuses to accept the
prosaic evidence of his eyes about these rats, and, like the stout
conservative he is, prefers to believe the old tradition that they
turn to mud during the flood season. Many a man will gravely
assert that he has himself observed the transformation actually in
progress.
[5]1 Kantar = nearly 100 lbs.
[6]Cf. p. 71.
[7]Estimated. £E1 = £1 0s. 6d.
[8]Estimated.
 Transcriber's note:

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