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Ceramics for
Environmental
Systems

Edited by
Lianzhou Wang
Nobuhito Imanaka
Waltraud M. Kriven
Manabu Fukushima
Girish Kale

Volume Editors
Mrityunjay Singh
Tatsuki Ohji
Alexander Michaelis

Volume 257
 Ceramics for
Environmental Systems
 Ceramics for
Environmental Systems
Ceramic Transactions, Volume 257
A Collection of Papers Presented
at CMCEE-11,
June 14–19, 2015,
Vancouver, BC, Canada
Edited by
Lianzhou Wang
Nobuhito Imanaka
Waltraud M. Kriven
Manabu Fukushima
Girish Kale

Volume Editors
Mrityunjay Singh
Tatsuki Ohji
Alexander Michaelis
Copyright © 2016 by The American Ceramic Society. All rights reserved.

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Preface vii

PHOTOCATALYSTS FOR ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

APPLICATIONS

Effect of Structural Properties on the Photoelectrochemical 3

Performance of TiO2 Films
A. K. Alves, A. C. Teloeken, F. A. Berutti, and C. P. Bergmann

Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes using MWCNT-TiO2 13

Composites as Catalyst
F. A. Berutti, A. P. Garcia, A. K. Alves, S. Da Dalt, and C. P. Bergmann

Synthesis of the TiO2-Long Lasting Phosphor (Sr4Al14O25:Eu2+,Dy3+) 23

Composite and Its Photocatalytic Reaction Properties
Jung-Sik Kim, Hyun-Je Sung, and Sang-Chul Jung

Development of Microtextured Titanium Dioxide Surface by using 35

Microcutting Techniques
J. Shimizu, T. Yamamoto, L. Zhou, T. Onuki, and H. Ojima

Morphology Control and Photocatalytic Activity of TiO2 Film 43

Jinshu Wang, Hongyi Li, Junshu Wu, Qian Cai, Yilong Yang, and
Bingxin Zhao

ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS, DEVICES, AND

SYSTEMS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT

Electrochemical Devices with Oxide Ion Electrolytes for Formation 59

of Hydrogen and Decomposition of Carbon Dioxide from the
CH4–CO2 Mixed Biogas
Yoshihiro Hirata, Soichiro Sameshima, and Taro Shimonosono

v
Gastight, Closed Pore Inclusive Porous Ceramics through a 69
Superplastically Foaming Method
Akira Kishimoto, Atsuki Tohji, Takashi Teranishi, and Hidetaka Hayashi

Cyanosilylation of Benzaldehyde with Trimethylsilyl Cyanide Over 81

A-Site Metal Substituted Perovskite-Type Oxide Catalyst Prepared
by Thermal Decomposition of Heteronuclear Cyano Complex
Precursors
Syuhei Yamaguchi, Hiroki Wada, Takahisa Okuwa, and Hidenori Yahiro

GEOPOLYMERS, INORGANIC POLYMER CERAMICS, AND

SUSTAINABLE COMPOSITES

Nanoparticles Seeded Geopolymers 93

Matteo Pernechele, Tom Troczynski, and Marek Pawlik

NH3BH3 and NaBH4 Enclosed in Geopolymers and Zeolites 105

C. H. Rüscher, L. Schomborg, Z. Assi, and J. C. Buhl

MACROPOROUS CERAMICS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AND

ENERGY APPLICATIONS

Silicon Carbide Membranes for Water Filtration Applications 121

Melanie Kuhn, Abhaya Bakshi, Eric Sheridan, Fabiano Rodrigues, Adrien Vincent,
Malte Moeller, and Ronald Neufert

Fabrication of Porous Ceramics with Cylindrical Pores and 129

Incorporating Pores by Unidirectional Solidification Process
Shunkichi Ueno and Jun-Woo Lee

ADVANCED SENSORS FOR ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT, AND

HEALTH APPLICATIONS

Printed Cantilevers and MOS Gas Sensors for Hazardous Gas 139
Detection at Room Temperature
Hélène Debéda, Van Son Nguyen, Fernando Almazán, Maria Pina Pilar,
Véronique Jubéra, and Claude Lucat

Sensing Characterization of the MOS Micro Gas Sensor Array on 147

Gas Mixture
Bum-Joon Kim and Jung-Sik Kim

Author Index 159

vi · Ceramics for Environmental Systems

 Preface

The global challenges we face require innovative thinking and sustainable technol-
ogy to meet increased demands for energy, clean water, and infrastructure. Re-
search in materials, specifically ceramic materials, continues to provide solutions to
everyday challenges such as environmental protection, energy supply and genera-
tion, and healthcare. The 11th International Symposium on Ceramic Materials and
Components for Energy and Environmental Applications (11th CMCEE), held June
14–19, 2015 at the Hyatt Regency Vancouver in Vancouver, B.C., Canada, identi-
fied key challenges and opportunities for ceramic technologies to create sustainable
materials.
This Ceramic Transactions volume contains papers submitted from the follow-
ing five symposia held in Track 3: Ceramics for Environmental Systems:

Photocatalysts for Energy and Environmental Applications

Advanced Functional Materials, Devices, and Systems for the Environment
Geopolymers, Inorganic Polymer Ceramics, and Sustainable Composites
Macroporous Ceramics For Environmental and Energy Applications
Advanced Sensors for Energy, Environment, and Health Applications

After a peer-review process, 14 papers were accepted for inclusion in this pro-
ceedings volume. The editors wish to extend their gratitude and appreciation to all
the symposium co-organizers for their help and support, to all the authors for their
cooperation and contributions, to all the participants and session chairs for their
time and efforts, and to all the reviewers for their valuable comments and sugges-
tions. We also acknowledge the organization and leadership provided by the meet-
ing chairs, Mrityunjay Singh, Tatsuki Ohji, and Alexander Michaelis.
We hope these proceedings will serve as a useful resource for researchers and
engineers working in the field of environmental science and technology.

LIANZHOU WANG, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, China

NOBUHITO IMANAKA, Osaka University, Japan
WALTRAUD M. KRIVEN, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA
MANABU FUKUSHIMA, AIST, Japan
GIRISH KALE, University of Leeds, UK

vii
Photocatalysts for Energy
and Environmental
Applications
EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES ON THE PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL
PERFORMANCE OF TiO2 FILMS

A. K. Alves; A. C. Teloeken; F. A. Berutti; C. P. Bergmann

Postgraduate Program in Mining, Metallurgy and Materials (PPGE3M)
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)
Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil

ABSTRACT
Semiconductors can be excited by exposure to radiation of a higher energy than the band
gap and an energy-rich electron–hole pair is formed. This energy can be utilized electrically, to
change the catalyst surface itself, or chemically. For photoelectrochemical (PEC) water-splitting,
a light-sensitive semiconductor is commonly used as a photoelectrode. In PEC applications,
titanium dioxide (TiO2) is one of the most important and most widely used semiconductors, mainly
due to its chemical stability, non-toxicity, low cost and adequate band gap for effective water-
splitting. The production of TiO2 thin films is a feasible way to immobilize the catalyst in a
photoelectrode surface. The photoactivity of the resulting TiO2 film depends strongly on its
physical properties such as crystal phase structures, thickness, porosity and atomic defects. In the
present work, these properties were studied for TiO2 thin films obtained by a dip-coating process
of a sol-gel system in a glass-FTO substrate. Two systems were tested; one with a binder (polyvinyl
butyral – PVB) and another without it. The samples after heat treatment were characterized by
XRD, SEM, DRS, ellipsometry, profilometry and photocurrent measurements. A significant
correlation between the structural aspects of the films (roughness, thickness and optical properties)
and the generated photocurrent was established.

INTRODUCTION
In the photoelectrochemical decomposition of water, which takes place in
photoelectrochemical cells, hydrogen and oxygen are separately generated on the surface of the
photocathode and the photoanode. Under illumination with light of a specific wavelength, holes
(h+) will be generated in the valence band, diffuse to the surface of the catalyst and then oxidize
the water molecules of the medium producing O2. The photogenerated electrons in the conduction
band can be transferred to the photocathode via the electrolyte and generate H2 1. The energy
necessary for such a process to occur (thermodynamic potential) is limited by the electrochemical
thermodynamics of the chemical decomposition of water into H2 and O2, typically requiring 1.23
V. However, when using just one semiconductor to absorb light, an electrochemical overpotential
is necessary to overcome the kinetics barrier1.
Titanium oxide has been used as a photoanode in this process because it has interesting
energy band positions, chemical stability, non-toxicity and low cost2. Although TiO2 has already
been studied as a photoanode, the structural and surface characteristics of TiO2 thin films that can
effectively influence the efficiency of H2 production are yet to be full comprehended. In general,
the preparation conditions of TiO2 thin films based on a sol-gel process can strongly affect the
physical properties of the film3, 4. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically study the structural
and physical properties of these films according to the preparation conditions.
In this context, this paper describes the preparation of TiO2 thin films using a sol-gel dip-
coating process. Titanium propoxide was used as a precursor and polyvinyl butyral (PVB) as a
binder system to tailor the viscosity of the system. The aims of this work were to obtain TiO2 films
with a specific crystal structure (anatase) using a low processing temperature and, to study the
influence of parameters such as the heat treatment temperature, the number of film layers, the

3
Effect of Structural Properties on Photoelectrochemical Performance of TiO2 Films

aging time and the presence of PVB in the morphological, optical and photoelectrochemical
characteristics of the films.

EXPERIMENTAL
A solution was prepared by mixing titanium propoxide (Sigma-Aldrich) and acetic acid
(Sigma-Aldrich) (volume ratio 1:1) under magnetic stirring for 10 minutes. Following the
approach adopted by Alves et al.5, the sol was then kept for 15 minutes in the dark to complete the
hydrolysis reaction. Subsequently 8 mL of anhydrous ethanol (Dinamica), 0.8 mL of acetylacetone
(Sigma-Aldrich) and 0.1 mL of Triton X-100 (Sigma-Aldrich) were successively added.
To tailor the viscosity of the system, a second solution was prepared using the same
procedure described above; however 0.316 g of polyvinyl butyral (Mowital B 30H, Omya) were
dissolved in 8 mL of anhydrous ethanol and added to the other reagents already mixed.
The solutions were aged for 2, 4, 6 and 8 hours in the dark. Afterwards, each solution was
deposited on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) coated glass substrates (NSG TEC 8A, Xop Física)
by a dip coating technique (Compact DipMaster 50 Dip Coater). The substrates were cleaned with
acetone using an ultrasound bath for 10 minutes, rinsed with distilled water and ethanol, and dried
in air for 30 minutes.
The substrates were dipped 1, 2 or 3 times into each solution at a speed of 50 mm/min, kept
immersed for 30 seconds and removed with the same speed. After each coating step, the samples
were dried for 30 minutes in air and, after the last coat, dried for 24 h at 100°C. The samples were
then heat-treated at 400, 500 or 600°C, with a heating rate of 100 °C/h, and a dwelling time of 2
hours.

Characterization
Viscosity measurements (Rheolab MC 120, Anton Paar) of the prepared solutions with and
without PVB were measured as a function of the shear rate (from 100 to 1000 s-1) at different time
intervals (2, 4, 6 and 8 h) to monitor the system aging and the effect of PVB.
The morphology of the films was analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM
Hitachi TM3000). The samples were attached to a sample holder with a carbon tape, without any
previous preparation.
The crystalline phase composition of the samples was determined using the X-ray
diffraction technique (Philips X’Pert), Cu Kͣ1 radiation (40 mA, 40 kV). The measurement was
made in ͪ/2ͪ-configuration in a range of 5° ࡌ 2ͪ ࡌ 80° with a scan speed of 2 s/step and an
increment of 0.002°. The crystallite size of the samples was calculated using the Scherrer
equation6.
The optical properties of the films were determined using diffuse reflectance spectroscopy
(DRS) with an integrating sphere (Agilent, Cary 5000) for band gap calculation and spectroscopic
ellipsometry (SOPRA GES-5E IRSE, Xe light) or optical profilometry (Contour GT-K 3D,
Bruker) for determining the film thickness of samples (opaque or translucid/transparent,
respectively).
The roughness of the films was determined using a Rugosimeter SJ-400 (Mitutoyo),
analyzing 0.01 ͮm2 of the surface area of each photoelectrode. Three distinct areas of each sample
were measured and the medium value of Ra was calculated.
Photocurrent measurements were performed using 1M KOH solution as electrolyte, a
potentiostat (Autolab, Metrohm), a platinum counter electrode and an Ag/AgCl/3M-KCl reference
electrode. A potential bias was applied from -0.5 to 0.5 V, at a scan rate of 10 mV/sec. The
measurements were first performed in the dark and then under illumination using a solar simulator
(Oriel Lamp by L.O.T – Oriel AG), at an intensity correspondent to 1.5 AM (1 sun, 1000 W/m2).

4 · Ceramics for Environmental Systems

 Effect of Structural Properties on Photoelectrochemical Performance of TiO2 Films

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The aging affect on the viscosity of the systems is observed in the results shown in Figure
1. As a high molecular weight polymer, it was expected that the samples with PVB would present
a higher viscosity than the samples without it, where the vehicle is mainly ethanol. The aging effect
is more distinctive in the first two hours, and is possibly caused by the condensation reactions of
the sol-gel system7. Both systems have an almost Newtonian fluid behavior.

Figure 1. Effect of aging time in the viscosity of the produce solutions with and without PVB.

It has been reported8 that it is possible to directly correlate the thickness of a dip-coating
film to the viscosity of the system. In fact, when analyzing the thickness results (Table 1) it is
possible to observe that the systems that contain PVB, the more viscous solutions, produce thicker
films. For the systems without PVB, which have a very low viscosity, the film thickness was on
average 0.14 nm. Sonawane et al.9 reported that when depositing multiple times, solutions with
low viscosity have adherence difficulties with respect to the last layer and, non-uniform films were
obtained. This may explain why the films obtained without PVB showed practically no change in
thickness with an increase in the number of layers. On the other hand, as also observed by
Sonawane et al.9, the addition of a polymer system helps to improve the adhesion of a new layer
and thus increase the thickness with the deposition of multiple layers.

Ceramics for Environmental Systems · 5

Effect of Structural Properties on Photoelectrochemical Performance of TiO2 Films

Table 1. Thickness, roughness and band gap of the produced films heat-treated at 500°C.
Thickness Roughness (Ra) Band gap
Sample
[nm] [nm] [eV]
1 layer 0.12 0.25 2.20
2 layers 0.13 0.30 2.66
3 layers 0.16 0.53 2.71
1 layer with PVB 0.23 0.35 2.97
2 layers with PVB 0.33 0.45 3.42
3 layers with PVB 0.42 0.82 3.24

Nevertheless, the number of layers affects the roughness of films. Films with thicker layers,
especially those with PVB, have surfaces that are more irregular, probably due to the thermal
decomposition of the organic binder. When this exits the system in the gaseous phase, it leaves
cracks and mesopores in the film. The surface images obtained by SEM for films without and with
PVB, (Figures 2 and 3, respectively), corroborate the roughness measurements.

Figure 2. SEM images of films with 1, 2 or 3 layers, without PVB.

6 · Ceramics for Environmental Systems

 Effect of Structural Properties on Photoelectrochemical Performance of TiO2 Films

Figure 3. SEM images of films with 1, 2 or 3 layers, with PVB.

Films obtained without the binder systems present a more uniform and homogeneous
surface, although some cracks are identified, especially at higher treatment temperatures, and are
probably caused by differences in the thermal expansion of the substrate and the film. However,
in the case of films that contain PVB, the microstructure is completely different. Many large and
small cracks are clearly visible, particularly for samples with three layers. In these systems, the
films are white/translucent, an indication of the presence of many structural defects
(microporosities), greater thickness and higher amounts of TiO2 particles in the surface.
The heat treatment temperature has no significant effect on the thickness, surface roughness
or phase composition. The XRD results presented in Figure 4 show that only the anatase phase
was identified as the major component of the films with PVB heat-treated at 400, 500 or 600°C.
The crystalline size increases with the treatment temperature, but the presence of PVB does not
significantly influence this property, since its decomposition occurs before the phase
crystallization start10, 11.

Ceramics for Environmental Systems · 7

 Photocatalytic Degradation of Dyes using MWCNT-TiO2 Composites as Catalyst

and the decrease in the value of the PL peak.When the MWCNT are homogenously covered with
TiO2 particles, it is expected that the PL signal of the composite will be higher that the MWCNT
alone, due to the presence of TiO2 particles with stronger PL signal.
The photocatalytic activity of these samples indicates that in the case of pure MWCNT,
only adsorption effects are present. The high surface area of the CNT promotes the presence of
actives sites for the complete adsorption of the dye before the photocatalytic test began. In the case
of the sample P25+CNT-B, due to the agglomeration cause by the basicity of the reaction
environment, larger amounts of CNT surface area was uncovered by TiO2 particles. Because of
that, there was a complete absorption of the dye, with a 10-minute delay when compared with
pristine CNT, due the presence of TiO2 particles, which lower its available surface area. Probably
because the absorption effects due to the presence of CNT, the composites seams to present a better
photocatalytic activity.

Figure 4. Variation of the concentration of the dye under 60 min period of UV irradiation in the
presence of MWCNT, P25 and composites P25+CNT-A and P25+CNT-B.

On the other hand, the PL of the composite samples prepared through the heat treatment of
titanium propoxide in acid and alkaline medium (TA and TB) (Figure 5) presents emission bands
at 325 and 380 nm (3,81 and 3,26), i.e., more energetic vibrational modes. The anatase PL peak
(2.38 eV) is broader and presents a blueshift, an indicative of high oxygen-vacancy density17, 18.
The blueshift is associated with TiO2 agglomeration19, specially observed by TEM for alkaline
conditions, which reduces the reactive surface area available. Both assumptions might explain the
low photoactivity of TB-400 and TB-600 composites.
The PL spectra revealed a broad asymmetric band from UV (4.0 eV) to near-infrared (1.2
eV). The UV emissions are originated from interband electrons transitions20. In the visible region
the emission is due to the recombination of the electron in the oxygen vacancy with a hole21. This
is directly associated with the photoactivity (Figure 6), when this recombination should be avoided.
The lower photoactivity of the composites TA-600 and TB-400, TB-500 and TB-600 may be

Ceramics for Environmental Systems · 19

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