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10 Essentials of Statistics
the Behavioral Sciences
for
Frederick J Gravetter
Late of The College at Brockport, State University of New York
Larry B. Wallnau
The College at Brockport, State University of New York
Lori-Ann B. Forzano
JAMES E. WITNAUER
Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States

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B rief Co ntents
C h a p te r 1 Introduction to Statistics 1
C h a p te r 2 Frequency Distributions 43
C h a p te r 3 Central Tendency 73
C h a p te r 4 Variability 109
C h a p te r 5 z-Scores: Location of Scores and Standardized Distributions 149
C h a p te r 6 Probability 177
C h a p te r 7 Probability and Samples: The Distribution of Sample Means 213
C h a p te r 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 243
C h a p te r 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 291
C h a p te r 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 323
C h a p te r 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 359
C h a p te r 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 391
C h a p te r 13 Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 435
C h a p te r 14 Correlation and Regression 477
C h a p te r 15 The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness of Fit and Independence 533
iii
Co ntents
C h a p te r 1 Introduction to Statistics 1
PREVIEW 2
1-1 Statistics and Behavioral Sciences 3
1-2 Observations, Measurement, and Variables 11
1-3 Three Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics 19
1-4 Statistical Notation 28
Summary 32
Focus on Problem Solving 33
Demonstration 1.1 33
SPSS® 34
Problems 38
C h a p te r 2 Frequency Distributions 43
PREVIEW 44
2-1 Frequency Distributions and Frequency Distribution Tables 45
2-2 Grouped Frequency Distribution Tables 51
2-3 Frequency Distribution Graphs 54
2-4 Stem and Leaf Displays 62
Summary 64
SPSS® 67
Problems 70
C h a p te r 3 Central Tendency 73
PREVIEW 74
3-1 Overview 75
3-2 The Mean 77
clivewa/Shutterstock.com v
vi Contents
3-3 The Median 85

3-4 The Mode 90
3-5 Central Tendency and the Shape of the Distribution 92
3-6 Selecting a Measure of Central Tendency 94
Summary 101
SPSS® 102
Problems 106
C h a p te r 4 Variability 109
PREVIEW 110
4-1 Introduction to Variability 111
4-2 Defining Variance and Standard Deviation 116
4-3 Measuring Variance and Standard Deviation for a Population 121
4-4 Measuring Variance and Standard Deviation for a Sample 124
4-5 Sample Variance as an Unbiased Statistic 130
4-6 More about Variance and Standard Deviation 133
Summary 141
SPSS® 143
Problems 145
z-Scores: Location of Scores

C h a p te r 5 and Standardized Distributions 149
PREVIEW 150
5-1 Introduction 151
5-2 z-Scores and Locations in a Distribution 152
5-3 Other Relationships between z, X, the Mean,
and the Standard Deviation 157
5-4 Using z-Scores to Standardize a Distribution 160
Contents vii
5-5 Other Standardized Distributions Based on z-Scores 164

5-6 Looking Ahead to Inferential Statistics 167
Summary 170
SPSS® 172
Problems 174
C h a p te r 6 Probability 177
PREVIEW 178
6-1 Introduction to Probability 179
6-2 Probability and the Normal Distribution 184
6-3 Probabilities and Proportions for Scores from a Normal
Distribution 192
6-4 Percentiles and Percentile Ranks 198
Summary 205
SPSS® 207
Problems 210
Probability and Samples: The Distribution

C h a p te r 7 of Sample Means 213
PREVIEW 214
7-1 Samples, Populations, and the Distribution of Sample Means 214
7-2 Shape, Central Tendency, and Variability for the Distribution
of Sample Means 219
7-3 z-Scores and Probability for Sample Means 226
7-4 More about Standard Error 230
viii Contents
Summary 238
SPSS® 240
Problems 240
Chapter 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 243

PREVIEW 244
8-1 The Logic of Hypothesis Testing 244
8-2 Uncertainty and Errors in Hypothesis Testing 256
8-3 More about Hypothesis Tests 261
8-4 Directional (One-Tailed) Hypothesis Tests 266
8-5 Concerns about Hypothesis Testing: Measuring Effect Size 270
8-6 Statistical Power 274
Summary 283
SPSS® 287
Problems 287
Chapter 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 291

PREVIEW 292
9-1 The t Statistic: An Alternative to z 292
9-2 Hypothesis Tests with the t Statistic 298
9-3 Measuring Effect Size for the t Statistic 303
9-4 Directional Hypotheses and One-Tailed Tests 312
Summary 315
Contents ix
SPSS® 317
Problems 319
Chap ter 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 323

PREVIEW 324
10-1 Introduction to the Independent-Measures Design 324
10-2 The Hypotheses and the Independent-Measures t Statistic 326
10-3 Hypothesis Tests with the Independent-Measures t Statistic 334
10-4 Effect Size and Confidence Intervals
for the Independent-Measures t 340
10-5 The Role of Sample Variance and Sample Size
in the Independent-Measures t Test 345
Summary 348
SPSS® 351
Problems 354
C h a p te r 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 359

PREVIEW 360
11-1 Introduction to Repeated-Measures Designs 360
11-2 The t Statistic for a Repeated-Measures Research Design 362
11-3 Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-Measures Design 366
11-4 Effect Size, Confidence Intervals, and the Role of Sample Size and
Sample Variance for the Repeated-Measures t 369
11-5 Comparing Repeated- and Independent-Measures Designs 375
Summary 380
SPSS® 382
Problems 384
x Contents
C h a p te r 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 391

PREVIEW 392
12-1 Introduction: An Overview of Analysis of Variance 392
12-2 The Logic of Analysis of Variance 397
12-3 ANOVA Notation and Formulas 401
12-4 Examples of Hypothesis Testing and Effect Size with ANOVA 409
12-5 Post Hoc Tests 416
12-6 More about ANOVA 420
Summary 425
SPSS® 428
Problems 431
C h a p te r 13 Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 435

PREVIEW 436
13-1 An Overview of the Two-Factor, Independent-Measures ANOVA 437
13-2 An Example of the Two-Factor ANOVA and Effect Size 446
13-3 More about the Two-Factor ANOVA 456
Summary 462
SPSS® 466
Problems 471
Ch a p ter 14 Correlation and Regression 477

PREVIEW 478
14-1 Introduction 479
14-2 The Pearson Correlation 482
14-3 Using and Interpreting the Pearson Correlation 487
14-4 Hypothesis Tests with the Pearson Correlation 494
14-5 Alternatives to the Pearson Correlation 498
14-6 Introduction to Linear Equations and Regression 507
Contents xi
Summary 520
SPSS® 524
Problems 528
The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness

C h a p te r 15 of Fit and Independence 533
PREVIEW 534
15-1 Introduction to Chi-Square: The Test for Goodness of Fit 534
15-2 An Example of the Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit 540
15-3 The Chi-Square Test for Independence 546
15-4 Effect Size and Assumptions for the Chi-Square Tests 553
Summary 558
SPSS® 562
Problems 565
A ppe n dix e s
A Basic Mathematics Review 569
A-1 Symbols and Notation 571
A-2 Proportions: Fractions, Decimals, and Percentages 573
A-3 Negative Numbers 579
A-4 Basic Algebra: Solving Equations 581
A-5 Exponents and Square Roots 584
B Statistical Tables 591
C Solutions for Odd-Numbered Problems in the Text 603
D General Instructions for Using SPSS® 629
Statistics Organizer: Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 635
Summary of Statistics Formulas 647
References 651
Name Index 657
Subject Index 659
Preface
M any students in the behavioral sciences view the required statistics course as an
intimidating obstacle that has been placed in the middle of an otherwise interest-
ing curriculum. They want to learn about psychology and human behavior—not about
math and science. As a result, the statistics course is seen as irrelevant to their education
and career goals. However, as long as psychology and the behavioral sciences in general
are founded in science, knowledge of statistics will be necessary. Statistical procedures
provide researchers with objective and systematic methods for describing and interpreting
their research results. Scientific research is the system that we use to gather information,
and statistics are the tools that we use to distill the information into sensible and justified
conclusions. The goal of this book is not only to teach the methods of statistics, but also
to convey the basic principles of objectivity and logic that are essential for the behavioral
sciences and valuable for decision making in everyday life.
Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, Tenth Edition, is intended for an
undergraduate statistics course in psychology or any of the related behavioral sciences. The
overall learning objectives of this book include the following, which correspond to some of
the learning goals identified by the American Psychological Association (Noland and the
Society for the Teaching of Psychology Statistical Literacy Taskforce, 2012).
1. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic measures of central tendency and
variability.
2. Distinguish between causal and correlational relationships.
3. Interpret data displayed as statistics, graphs, and tables.
4. Select and implement an appropriate statistical analysis for a given research design,
problem, or hypothesis.
5. Identify the correct strategy for data analysis and interpretation when testing
hypotheses.
6. Select, apply, and interpret appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.
7. Produce and interpret reports of statistical analyses using APA style.
8. Distinguish between statistically significant and chance findings in data.
9. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic tests of statistical significance.
10. Calculate and interpret the meaning of confidence intervals.
11. Calculate and interpret the meaning of basic measures of effect size statistics.
12. Recognize when a statistically significant result may also have practical significance.
The book chapters are organized in the sequence that we use for our own statistics
courses. We begin with descriptive statistics (Chapters 1–4), then lay the foundation for
inferential statistics (Chapters 5–8), and then we examine a variety of statistical procedures
focused on sample means and variance (Chapters 9–13) before moving on to correlational
methods and nonparametric statistics (Chapters 14 and 15). Information about modifying
this sequence is presented in the “To the Instructor” section for individuals who prefer a
xiii
xiv preface
different organization. Each chapter contains numerous examples (many based on actual
research studies), learning objectives and learning checks for each section, a summary and
list of key terms, instructions for using SPSS®, detailed problem-solving tips and demon-
strations, and a set of end-of-chapter problems.
Those of you who are familiar with previous editions of Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences and Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences will
notice that some changes have been made. These changes are summarized in the “To
the Instructor” section. Students who are using this edition should read the section of
the preface entitled “To the Student.” In revising this text, our students have been fore-
most in our minds. Over the years, they have provided honest and useful feedback, and
their hard work and perseverance has made our writing and teaching most rewarding.
We sincerely thank them.
To the Instructor
Previous users of any of the Gravetter-franchise textbooks should know that we have main-
tained all the hallmark features of our Statistics and Essentials of Statistics textbooks: the
organization of chapters and content within chapters; the student-friendly, conversational
tone; and the variety of pedagogical aids, including, Tools You Will Need, chapter out-
lines, and section-by-section Learning Objectives and Learning Checks, as well as end-
of-chapter Summaries, Key Terms lists, Focus on Problem Solving tips, Demonstrations
of problems solved, SPSS sections, and end-of-chapter Problems (with solutions to odd-
numbered problems provided to students in Appendix C).
■ New to This Edition

Those of you familiar with the previous edition of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences
will be pleased to see that Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences has the same
“look and feel” and includes much of its content. For those of you familiar with Essentials,
the following are highlights of the changes that have been made:
■■ Every chapter begins with a Preview, which highlights an example of a published
study. These have been selected for level of interest so that they will draw the student
in. The studies are used to illustrate the purpose and rationale of the statistical proce-
dure presented in the chapter.
■■ There has been extensive revision of the end-of-chapter Problems. Many old prob-
lems have been replaced with new examples that cite research studies. As an en-
hanced instructional resource for students, the odd-numbered solutions in Appendix C
now show the work for intermediate answers for problems that require more than one
step. The even-numbered solutions are available online in the instructor’s resources.
■■ The sections on research design and methods in Chapter 1 have been revised to
be consistent with Gravetter and Forzano, Research Methods for the Behavioral
Sciences, Sixth Edition. The interval and ratio scales discussion in Chapter 1 has been
refined and includes a new table distinguishing scales of measurement.
■■ In Chapter 2, a new section on stem and leaf displays describes this exploratory
data analysis as a simple alternative to a frequency distribution table or graph. A
basic presentation of percentiles and percentile ranks has been added to the cover-
age of frequency distribution tables in Chapter 2. The topic is revisited in Chapter 6
(Section 6-4, Percentiles and Percentile Ranks), showing how percentiles and percen-
tile ranks can be determined with normal distributions.
preface xv
■■ Chapter 3 (Central Tendency) has added coverage for the median when there are tied
scores in the middle of the distribution. It includes a formula for determining the
median with interpolation.
■■ The coverage of degrees of freedom in Chapter 4 (Variability) has been revised,
including a new box feature (Degrees of Freedom, Cafeteria-Style) that provides
an analogy for the student. Rounding and rounding rules are discussed in a new
paragraph in Section 4-2, Defining Variance and Standard Deviation. It was pre-
sented in this section because Example 4.2 is the first instance where the answer
is an irrational number. A section on quartiles and the interquartile range has
been added.
■■ Coverage of the distribution of sample means (Chapter 7) has been revised to pro-
vide more clarification. The topic is revisited in Chapter 9, where the distribution of
sample means is more concretely compared and contrasted with the distribution of
z-scores, along with a comparison between the unit normal table and the t distribution
table. Chapter 7 also includes a new box feature that depicts the law of large num-
bers using an illustration of online shopping (The Law of Large Numbers and Online
Shopping).
■■ In Chapter 8 (Introduction to Hypothesis Testing), the section on statistical power has
been completely rewritten. It is now organized and simplified into steps that the stu-
dent can follow. The figures for this section have been improved as well.
■■ A new box feature has been added to Chapter 10 demonstrating how the t statistic
for an independent-measures study can be calculated from sample means, standard
deviations, and sample sizes in a published research paper. There is an added section
describing the role of individual differences in the size of standard error.
■■ The comparison of independent- and repeated-measures designs has been expanded
in Chapter 11, and includes the issue of power.
■■ In Chapter 12 the section describing the numerator and denominator in the F-ratio
has been expanded to include a description of the sources of the random and unsys-
tematic differences.
■■ Chapter 13 now covers only the two-factor, independent-measures ANOVA. The
single-factor, repeated-measures ANOVA was dropped because repeated-measures
designs are typically performed in a mixed design that also includes one (or more)
between-subject factors. As a result, Chapter 13 now has expanded coverage of the
two-factor, independent-measures ANOVA.
■■ For Chapter 14, three graphs have been redrawn to correct minor inaccuracies and
improve clarity. As with other chapters, there is a new SPSS section with figures and
end-of-chapter Problems have been updated with current research examples.
■■ Chapter 15 has minor revisions and an updated SPSS section with four figures. As
with other chapters, the end-of-chapter Problems have been extensively revised and
contain current research examples.
■■ Many research examples have been updated with an eye toward selecting examples
that are of particular interest to college students and that cut across the domain of the
behavioral sciences.
■■ Learning Checks have been revised.
■■ All SPSS sections have been revised using SPSS® 25 and new examples. New screen-
shots of analyses are presented. Appendix D, General Instructions for Using SPSS®,
has been significantly expanded.
■■ A summary of statistics formulas has been added.
Section 1-1 | Statistics and Behavioral Sciences 5
F I G U R E 1.1 THE POPULATION

The relationship between a population and All of the individuals of interest
a sample.
The results
The sample
from the sample
is selected from
are generalized
the population
to the population
THE SAMPLE
The individuals selected to
participate in the research study
back to the entire population. Remember that the researcher started with a general question
about the population. To answer the question, a researcher studies a sample and then gener-
alizes the results from the sample to the population. The full relationship between a sample
and a population is shown in Figure 1.1.
■ Variables and Data

Typically, researchers are interested in specific characteristics of the individuals in the
population (or in the sample), or they are interested in outside factors that may influence
behavior of the individuals. For example, Bakhshi, Kanuparthy, and Gilbert (2014) want-
ed to determine if the weather is related to online ratings of restaurants. As the weather
changes, do people’s reviews of restaurants change too? Something that can change or have
different values is called a variable.
A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for

different individuals.
In the case of the previous example, both weather and people’s reviews of restaurants
are variables. By the way, in case you are wondering, the authors did find a relationship
between weather and online reviews of restaurants. Reviews were worse during bad weath-
er (for example, during extremely hot or cold days).
Once again, variables can be characteristics that differ from one individual to another,
such as weight, gender identity, personality, or motivation and behavior. Also, variables can
be environmental conditions that change, such as temperature, time of day, or the size of
the room in which the research is being conducted.
To demonstrate changes in variables, it is necessary to make measurements of the vari-
ables being examined. The measurement obtained for each individual is called a datum, or
more commonly, a score or raw score. The complete set of scores is called the data set or
simply the data.
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McDonough P, 25 Sept
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5280 McGowen Wm
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2269 Merritt M
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19 Oct
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28 May
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11 July
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23 Sept
8506 Mitchell W C
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14 Nov
11867 Mitchell F
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19 Nov
11771 Mitchell John
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20 Sept
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July
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2 Aug
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27 June
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23 Sept
8077 Morgan Pat
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56 July
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Aug
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28 May
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12 June
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27 Mar
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19 Aug
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Sept
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Jan
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39 April
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36 June
2509 O’Brien John
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Aug
5117 O’Connell J 9C
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15 Nov
12189 O’Connell J
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9789 O’Connell M 2H
26
29 Oct
11080 O’Conner Wm
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11 Oct
11493 O’Donnell W
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39 Oct
10592 Oliver J
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27 Aug
4640 Oliver S E
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25 Aug
7161 O’Neil Charles
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25 Aug
4884 O’Neil D
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19 Aug
4975 Osborn W
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27 Aug
5340 Packard N M
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6629 Page Wm 16 Aug
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17 April
598 Paisley Wm
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59 Oct
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17 Aug
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11059 Pantins A J
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6899 Pandes L Art
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2970 Reynolds N A 36 July
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20 Sept
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19 Aug
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56 Sept
8642 Riley M
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32 Aug
7200 Ripley M A
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58 Aug
6650 Rippon Wm
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18 Oct
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Sept
9448 Roberts Joseph C 1K
21
12505 Roberts L 13 Jan 65
F 22
19 Oct
11699 Robinson J 64
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27 July
3833 Robinson R
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E 23

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Essentials of Statistics for the

Behavioral Sciences Frederick J.

Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences,

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Frederick J.

Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Statistics for the behavioral sciences Gravetter

Cengage Advantage Books Statistics for the Behavioral

Essential Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences 4th Edition

Fundamental statistics for the behavioral sciences, 9th

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C h a p te r 5 z-Scores: Location of Scores and Standardized Distributions 149

C h a p te r 7 Probability and Samples: The Distribution of Sample Means 213

C h a p te r 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 243

C h a p te r 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 291

C h a p te r 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 323

C h a p te r 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 359

C h a p te r 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 391

C h a p te r 13 Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 435

C h a p te r 14 Correlation and Regression 477

3-3 The Median 85

z-Scores: Location of Scores

5-5 Other Standardized Distributions Based on z-Scores 164

Probability and Samples: The Distribution

Chapter 8 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing 243

Chapter 9 Introduction to the t Statistic 291

Chap ter 10 The t Test for Two Independent Samples 323

C h a p te r 11 The t Test for Two Related Samples 359

C h a p te r 12 Introduction to Analysis of Variance 391

C h a p te r 13 Two-Factor Analysis of Variance 435

Ch a p ter 14 Correlation and Regression 477

The Chi-Square Statistic: Tests for Goodness

■ New to This Edition

F I G U R E 1.1 THE POPULATION

■ Variables and Data

A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for

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5-5 Other Standardized Distributions Based on z-Scores 164