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Summary

• Overview of Ergonomics
– Definition
OVERVIEW OF – Scope
– Application
ERGONOMICS – Human capacities
– Human error
– Teamwork
– Ageing
– Role of the Ergonomist

Ergonomics definitions Ergonomics definitions

• “Study of work”
• “User-centred design” Different terminology…!
• “Human factors in design”
Human factors and ergonomics is the application of
psychological and physiological principles to the UK – ‘Ergonomics’
engineering and design of products, processes, and
systems 3 key domains: USA – ‘Human Factors’
• Physical
• Cognitive
• Organisational

The human at work Scope of ergonomics

Societal and Cultural Environment

External Environment – Legislation, Economy, Standards

Human characteristics
Organisation Structure & Job Design

Workplace Environment
considered:
Input
Orders/
Workstation

Worker
Output
Goods/
• Anatomy
Services
• Physiology
Planning

• Psychology

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Scope of ergonomics Scope of ergonomics

Ergonomics should be applied for all designs
involving humans, e.g.:
Describe a piece of equipment you
• Furniture regularly use that has considered
• Appliances • Vehicles ergonomics in its design and use. What
• Tools • Transport are the relevant features that make it
• Sports equipment ergonomically well designed?
• Spaces

Benefits of ergonomics Occupational ergonomics(1)

• Faster The worker
• Easier
• Safer

> Enhanced
productivity

Occupational ergonomics (2) Occupational ergonomics (3)

Job / task design Work environment

Add
pics

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Occupational ergonomics (4) Occupational ergonomics (5)

Equipment design Work organisation

Occupational ergonomics (6) Systems of work

Factors to
consider?

Human characteristics & Human error (1)

limitations
“An inappropriate or undesirable
human decision or behaviour…
• Physical that reduces or has the potential
for reducing effectiveness, safety
• Cognitive or safety performance..”

What impacts on these characteristics Error indicates a poor design.

and results in differences between
people? Good ergonomics reduces errors.

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Human Human error (3)

error (2)
• Active failure – immediate
consequence

• Latent failure – systems failure

Examples from your

work/area??

Human error (4) Human error (5)

Causes:
1. Organisational factors
2. Individual factors
Reduce problems with errors by:
1. Improving the training
2. Improving workplace design, and
detecting errors early
(eg feedback to allow remedial actions)
3. Reducing impact of the error

Teamwork (1) Teamwork (2)

Work team – Collection of Benefits?

individuals who work together to
•Increase problem solving
achieve a goal or complete a set
of tasks •Improved employee performance
•Multiple perspectives
• Self-managed
•Increased output
• Integrated
•Frees up managers

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Teamwork (3) Ageing workforce (1)

Limitations / drawbacks?
•Unequal effort
•Different levels of skill/ fitness
•Slow achieving agreements – time wasting
•Conflict
•Competition
Age profile of Australian population, Australian Public Service Commission, 2003

Ageing workforce (2) The Ergonomist’s role

True or false??
1.Older workers have more accidents.
2.Vision & hearing acuity decrease with age.
3.Older workers recuperate faster following Assist industry to design work systems,
injury / illness. equipment and the human-machine
interface…
4.Older workers may be more at risk of
sprains and strains. …to promote productivity, efficiency
and worker comfort and satisfaction.

Body Systems & Functions

• Framework • Skeleton
• Moving parts • Joints
BIOLOGICAL ERGONOMICS • Metabolism &
• Energy conversion physiology
• Movement control • Nervous system
• Feedback • Senses – vision,
hearing, touch etc
systems
• Brain
• Decision making

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The musculoskeletal system (1) The musculoskeletal system (2)

Muscles and tendons…

Mosby’s Medical Encyclopaedia

The musculoskeletal system (3) The musculoskeletal system (4)

Ligaments…an example Muscle work…

Mosby’s Medical Encyclopaedia

Mosby’s Medical Encyclopaedia

Posture & movement (1) Posture & movement (2)

Mosby’s Medical Encyclopaedia

Mosby’s Medical Encyclopaedia

Stevenson

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Posture & movement (3) Posture & movement (4)

Stevenson

Posture & movement (5) Posture & movement (6)

Static V dynamic muscle work… Static V dynamic muscle work…

Where will these

workers be
feeling fatigue?

Stevenson

Where will these workers be feeling fatigue?

Stevenson

Biomechanics (1) Biomechanics (2)

1st order lever

The interaction of human
movement and posture….
….. levers and forces

McPhee

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Biomechanics(3) Biomechanics (4)

2nd order lever 3rd order lever

McPhee

McPhee

Biomechanics &
the Musculoskeletal system
Key issues for work design?
• Postures – eg arm, wrist, back?
• Muscle action – static V dynamic?
• Levers?
Anthropometry (1)
Dimensions of the human body…
applied to designs
Includes: height, circumference,
weight, range of movements
Static & dynamic measurements

Anthropometry (2) Anthropometry (3)

McPhee

McPhee

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Anthropometry (4) Anthropometry (5)

BP

McPhee

Anthropometry (6) Work physiology (1)

Factors affecting body size? Human physical abilities also
• Age affected by:
• Sex • Strength
• Ethnicity • Work capacity
• Fitness & health • Endurance
• Fatigue
• Occupation
• Posture & body position

Work physiology (2) Work physiology (3)

Work capacity is measured in:

Strength is affected by: • maximum O2 uptake
• Gender • heart rate
• Age
• Training

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Work physiology (4) Work physiology (5)

Endurance & muscle efficiency is
enhanced by:
• Eliminating unnecessary movements
• Using muscles according to their function
• Use of body weight & momentum & gravity
• Balance
• Vary movements & postures
• Postures that allow maximum torque
• No. of movements
• Provide practice Stevenson

Work physiology (6)

Fatigue from:
• Static muscle work
PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK
• Work at outer range of joint movement
• Use high forces
• Long duration

Issues to consider: Perception & cognition

• Perception Senses:
Sight
Sound Perception Processing Action/
(Cognition) inaction Performance
•
Touch
Motivation Taste

• Memory
• Risk perception
Short term Long term

• Work stress memory memory

• Work organisation

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Memory Decision making

Information
discarded
Perceive information > Make decision

Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Information
discarded Features of decision
Information
perception making:
•Uncertainty
Information
processing
Information
acted upon •Familiarity & expertise
•Time
Information processing in short & long term memory

Perception of risk (1) Perception of risk (2)

Experience on task Perceive low level of risk
Lower risk is perceived when hazard is:
Perception of risk
is generally much Familiar Controllable
lower than actual Forgettable Preventable
risk Cumulative
Can you think of your Consequential
own workplaces or Understood & exposure is voluntary.
own experience with
risk?

Perception of risk (3) Signal detection theory (1)

Risk compensation: Humans detecting change/ signals
People adjust behaviours to compensate at work and responding
for changes in perceived risk. appropriately.

The lower risk perception, the more and

greater the risks that will be taken….
Examples from your work?

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Signal detection theory (2) Signal detection theory (3)

Condition How can workplaces improve
Signal IS Signal is correct responses & reduce
Present Absent errors?
•Reducing noise
Signal IS FALSE
HIT •Reducing distractors
Present ALARM
Operator’s •Reducing extraneous information
Response Signal is CORRECT •Increasing the strength of the signal
MISS
Absent REJECTION •Presenting information clearly & simply

Vigilance (1) Vigilance (2)

Monitoring equipment or processes at work Methods to enhance vigilance performance:
Examples: •Mix of signals – eg visual & auditory
•Free response •Ensure signal stands out
•Inspection task •Make signal dynamic
•Successive task •Provide 2 operators for monitoring
•Simultaneous •Provide 10 mins rest or other activity per 30
mins of monitoring
•Sensory
•Install artificial signals that require response
•Cognitive

Vigilance (3) Motivation & behaviour (1)

Methods to enhance vigilance performance (contd.):
•Refresher training
•Vary stimulation inversely to task stimulation
•Avoid over or underload
•Require operator to report all signals, even those
signals in doubt
Workplace motivation –
Individual’s intention or willingness to perform
a task
Extrinsic V intrinsic
……..wide variation in ‘rewards’
What ‘rewards’ have & have NOT
worked in your workplace? Why?

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Motivation & behaviour (2) Work stress (1)

Setting goals & selecting rewards Demands exceed ability to cope
Most likely if individuals experience:
Goals are effective if: •Lack of control
•Element of challenge •Lack of social support
•Realistic / attainable •Lack of direction

•Feedback re performance towards goal •Lack of information

•Conflict with others

Rewards are best if: •Physical work environment problems

•Violence or aggression
•Workers are consulted re options

Work stress (2) Work stress (3)

Signs of stress…
Psych: Physical: Behavioural:
•Anxiety •Increased •Smoking
blood pressure
•Depression •Alcohol abuse
•Increased
•Aggression •Drug abuse
heart rate
•Confusion •Absenteeism
•Muscle tension
•Poor performance
•Headaches

McPhee

Work stress (4) Work organisation (1)

Workplace culture and way the workplace functions
How should organisations manage stress
at work? • management style
• organisation of work groups
• industry norms & history
What’s it got to do with ergonomics? • work hierarchy
• work hours etc

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Work organisation (2) Work organisation (3)

Work shifts Managing shiftwork:
Flexible • Reduce consecutive night shifts –
eg max. 3x8hr/wk or 2x12hr/wk
V
• Rapidly rotate rosters – eg each 2-3 days
Shiftwork
• Forward rotations – day>afternoon>night
V • Compressed weeks
Extended hours • Personal coping strategies

Rest & work breaks (1) Rest & work breaks (2)

Work pauses Work breaks

Spontaneous & often unplanned breaks Definition: meal breaks and other
in a task breaks where people can take time to
recover from a task

Examples from your work? How long to break? How often?

Examples from your work?

Rest & work breaks (3)

DEVELOPING AN
Average amount of sleep required…? ERGONOMICS STRATEGY

Each 24 hours: >No less than 5.5hrs

Each week: >No less than 49 hrs
Each month: >No less than an av. of
7.7hrs/day (i.e. 210hrs/mth)

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Issues to consider Workplace culture & systems (1)

• Systems
– structures made up of sets of inter-related and inter-
• Workplace culture dependent parts

• Types of teams used in workplace

– Organisations
• Ergonomics at the design phase
• sub-systems within society
• Competence of Ergonomics advice
• Work teams/departments
– sub-systems in organisations

Workplace culture & systems (2) Workplace culture & systems (3)

• Consultation
Managing change – Sharing information and exchanging views
– Central to efficient management systems.

Has your team/organisation undergone major Who?

change?
What?
What factors hindered peoples’ acceptance? When?
What factors helped the process and made Where?
it work? How?

Macro-ergonomics Participatory ergonomics

Ergonomics
Workforce
Also known as… Team Leader

…Systems ergonomics
Management
Designers, Ergonomics
(Treating
…Organisational design and Product
researchers, etc
Process
Model
health
professionals)
management (ODAM)
Participatory ergonomics teams in Ergonomics
Problem Ergonomics
organisations often focus on the macro- Expert
solving
ergonomics issues. teams

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Ergonomics in design Ergonomics in design

• Design for user and

potential user population
How do we reduce design errors?
• Iterative design What designs have you been involved
–
–
Mock-ups
Prototypes
with that worked well?
–
–
Trial
FEEDBACK
What steps did you take to achieve
success?

Professional Ergonomists
IEA Technical committees include:

Aerospace Gender & work Process control

Ageing Healthcare Psycho-
physiology
Anthropometry Human reliability Quality
management
…“facilitates practical application of
ergonomics in industry and other areas Auditory Musculoskeletal Safety
ergonomics disorders
Encourages scientific research by Building & O.D.A.M Slips, trips & falls
qualified persons in the field of study and construction
practice…” Children Primary industry Computers

Ergonomics: seeing the whole picture

IEA provides:
•Criteria for assessing and endorsing certifying
bodies & programs
•List of competencies for Ergonomists

e.g. ‘Certified Professional Ergonomist’ (CPE)

& similar titles

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