Research Methods: How do you carry out

psychological research?
What is a variable?

A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are
generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in
changes to another.

Independent variable (IV)

the variable that is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter.

 For example, in an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test

performance, sleep deprivation would be the independent variable.

Dependent variable (DV)

the variable which is measured by the researcher as a result of the manipulation of the IV.

 For example, in the experiment that researches the impact of sleep deprivation on test
performance, test performance would be the dependent variable.

Extraneous Variables
These are generally unwanted variables that can have an impact on the relationship between
the IV and DV. Examples of extraneous variables in our study relating to the how sleep
deprivation affects test performance would be: age; gender; academic background. There are
two basic types of extraneous variable:

Participant variables: This relate to individual characteristics of each participant

that may impact how he or she responds. Examples are mood, anxiety,
intelligence, awareness.

Situational variables: These relate to things in the environment that may impact
how each participant responds. Examples are the temperature of the room,
outside noise.

How to reduce extraneous variables

There are different ways to reduce extraneous variables:

1. Standardisation: Keeping parts of the procedure the same so each participant

experiences the same procedure
2. Random allocation: Participants are picked out of a hat to allocate them to a
condition, rather than the experimenter choosing.
3. Single/double blind technique: The people conducting the tests don’t know the
condition that the participant is in.
Experimental designs
Experimental designs is how the participants are split into conditions. There are three types of
experimental designs.

1. Independent groups design

There are different participants in each condition.

Strengths:

 It removes order effects as participants only complete one condition so the results are
more valid

Weaknesses:

 There may be individual differences between groups which can reduce the validity of
the results
 More participants are needed which can be time consuming to collect and test.

2. Repeated Measures

The same participants are used in all conditions.

Strengths:

 It compares the same participants so the changes are real which makes the results
more valid
 You don’t need as many participants which is less time consuming and makes them
quicker to collect.

Weaknesses:

 Possibility of order effects. Participants performance is determined by the order that

the complete the conditions. This reduces the validity of the results.
 Participants may do better the second time (practice effects) which reduces the
validity of the results.
 Participants may under-perform the second time (bored) which reduces the validity of
the results.

3. Matches pairs design

Different participants in different conditions who are matched on a characteristic e.g. gender,
age, IQ or experience.

Strengths:

 It controls for individual differences which increases the validity of the results.

Weaknesses:

 It can be difficult and time consuming to match participants

Hypotheses
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers
predict will be the outcome of the study. There are two main ways of expressing a
hypothesis:

The Null Hypothesis

States that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied (i.e. the IV does
not affect the DV). Any results found are due to chance.

In a study investigating the effect sleep deprivation might have on test performance, the null
hypothesis would be:

There will be no significant relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance.

The Alternative Hypothesis

This is also called Experimental Hypothesis when the method of investigation is an

experiment (e.g. a laboratory; field; natural or quasi)

The alternative (or experimental) hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the
two variables being studied (one variable will have an effect on the other).

In a study investigating the effect sleep deprivation might have on test performance, the
alternative hypothesis would be: Sleep deprivation will significantly affect test performance.

Experiments
An experiment involves the manipulation of the IV to see what effect it has on the DV, while
attempting to control the influence of all other extraneous variables.
Laboratory Experiments
These normally take pace in a controlled environment, such as a laboratory. The researcher
deliberately manipulates the IV while maintaining strict control over the extraneous variables
through standardised procedures

Strengths

 Strict controls and procedures mean other researchers can easily replicate lab
experiments and check for reliability
 High control over extraneous variables implies cause and effect can be studied
without any influence from other unwanted variables.

Weaknesses

 The artificiality of the setting means participants might not demonstrate real-life
behaviour – this dramatically reduces ecological validity.
 Demand characteristics are likely.

Field Experiments
These experiments are the same as laboratory experiments in terms of how researchers treat
the IV, DV, and extraneous variables. However, the laboratory experiment is swapped for a
real-life setting such as a school, town centre or hospital.

Strengths

 Ecological validity is higher than in a lab experiment due to the ‘real world’ setting.
 We can assume there is less bias from sampling (participants do not have to be
brought into the lab) and demand characteristics (if subjects are unaware they are
being tested).

Weaknesses

 The researcher’s control over the environment is reduced in the real world. Therefore
extraneous variables are more likely to confound the results and greatly reduce
validity.
 More time consuming and thus can be more expensive.

Natural Experiments
Where the change in the experiment is not brought about by the researcher. The change
would have occurred whether the experimenter was interested in it or not. The IV occurs
naturally.
Example: To investigate the levels of anxiety in phobic and non-phobic people. In this study,
nobody induces phobia in the participants. It simply exists.

Strengths

 Great ecological validity

 Great generalisability.
 We can assume there is less bias from sampling (participants do not have to be
brought into the lab) and demand characteristics (if subjects are unaware they are
being tested)

Weaknesses

 The cause and effect relationship of the IV and DV can be more easily affected by
confounding variables.
 Participants cannot be randomly allocated to the experimental or controlled
condition.

Self report methods

There are two types of self report methods that you need to know. Interviews and
questionnaires.

Interviews
Interviews involve asking the participant direct questions. There are three different types of
interviews.

1. Structured: the questions are already pre-made.

2. Unstructured: the interviewer makes up the questions on the spot.
3. Semi-structured: some questions are made before and some are made up.

Strengths
Structured interview

 It gathers a lot of information quickly which increases the validity.

 It allows you to use the same questions again to see if you can find the same results
which increases the reliability.

Unstructured interview

 Allows a lot of in-depth information to be gathered because the researcher can ask the
participant to elaborate on an answer. This increases the validity.

Semi-structured interview

 A free flowing conversation can occur so lots of data can be gathered which increases
the validity of the results.

Weaknesses
Structured interview

 It might lead to gathering ‘superficial’ information which decreases the validity of the
results.

Unstructured interview

 It can be time consuming asking additional questions and encouraging the participants
to elaborate

Semi-structured interview

 The interviewer needs training to encourage a free flowing conversation.

Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a set of pre-designed questions. The participant will answer these.

These questions can be open or closed

Open questions allow the participant to give a more detailed answer for example ‘explain
why you enjoy Psychology lessons’ = qualitative data

Closed questions allow the participants to give a limited answer for example ‘do you enjoy
Psychology lessons?’ Yes or no = quantitative data

Some questionnaires might be measured on a likert scale for example ‘On a scale of 1-10
how much do you enjoy Psychology lessons’ = Quantitative data

Strengths
 Cheap to run
 Ethical as participants can choose whether to take part
 Open questions are more valid as they are in depth
 The use of closed questions and a likert scale produce quanitative data which is
reliable because it is easy to compare responses.

Weaknesses
 The participant may not answer truthfully (socially desirable responses)
 The use of closed questions and a likert scale produce quanitative data which lacks
validity because it lacks detail.
 Some participants may not respond to all questions which reduces the validity of the
data.

Data and Graphs

There are two types of data that you need to know. Qualitative and Quantitative.

1. Qualitative data is data that is mainly words e.g. a description of memories.

2. Quantitative data is data that is mainly numerical e.g a measurement

Strengths
Qualitative data
  Information is rich in detail which increases the validity of the results
 It gives you a better insight into people

Quantitative data

 Data can be easily compared with other data.

 Data is easy to analyse

Weaknesses
Qualitative data

 Harder to compare with other data

 Can take longer to analyse

Quantitative data

 Harder to get a true insight into people as the data is not in depth
 May not be valid

Graphs
You have to be able to interpret tables, charts and graphs in your exam. There are three types
that you need to be aware of. These are:

1. Bar Charts
2. Scatter Graphs
3. Line Graphs

Bar charts
A bar chart uses bars to describe data that is in categories. The bars do not touch because the
data is discrete (it can only be in one group of the other). See the example below.
Histograms
A histogram is similar to a Bar Chart, but a histogram groups numbers into ranges .

The height of each bar shows how many fall into each range.

The example below shows how many trees fall into each height range.

Frequency histogram
A Frequency Histogram is a graph that uses vertical columns to show frequencies (how many
times each score occurs)
Scatter graphs
A scatter graph is only used for correlation data, to show a relationship between two
variables. One variable is plotted on the X-axis and the other on the y-axis; the line through
the cluster of points shows whether there is a relationship or not.

The line through the points is known as a line of best fit. The line shows whether the
relationship is positive or negative

A positive relationship shows that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases

For example, the line graph shows a positive relationship between a child’s height and their
weight. As a child’s height increases, so does their weight.
A negative correlation shows that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. For
example, as the number of exams for students increased, the happiness scores for students
decreased.

Line graphs
Line graphs are used to show something over time. The example below shows the number of
muffins sold over a week.

The x-axis is known as the independent variable because its values do not depend on other
factors. The y-axis is know as the dependent value because its value depends on those of the
independent value at that time.

A line is used to match the points together in a dot to dot like fashion.
Correlations
A correlation tells us whether there is an association or a relationship between two variables
e.g. is there a relationship between temperature and the number of ice creams sold. A
correlations is plotted on a scatter graph.

Image one shows a positive correlation. As one variable increases, the other variable will
also increase. E.g. the sale of ice creams increase as the temperature increases on a hot day

Image two shows a negative correlation. As one variable increases, the other variable
decreases. E.g. the number of clothes we wear decreases as the temperature rises

Image three shows no correlation. This is shown as there is no relationship between the two
variables. For example, there is no relationship between the number of clothes we wear as we
get older.

Strengths of using correlations

 Correlations are objective because they use quantitative data
 Correlations opens doors for new research

Weaknesses of using correlations

 Correlations can’t show cause and effect
 Correlations lack detail as they only use quantitative data

Normal distributions
A normal distribution describes spread (distribution) of data. If you plotted everyone’s data
on a graph you would get a bell shaped curve which means that the majority of values are
clustered around the middle (the average).

Characteristics of a normal distribution curve, also know as a bell-shaped curve:

  it is bell-shaped
 it is symmetrical
 the mean, median and mode all fall on the same central point.
 The two tails never touch the horizontal axis.

Observations
An observation is the process of watching what people do and there are many different types
of observations in Psychology.

1. Participant observation – The observer takes part in the activity to be observed

2. Non-participant observation – The observer does not take part in the activity to be
observed
3. Covert observation – The observation is secret
4. Overt observation – The participant knows they’re being observed
5. Naturalistic observation – The observation is in a natural setting
6. Structured observation – The observation is at an event staged by the observers to
see what happens
Reliability and Validity
Reliability and validity are two key terms used to evaluate.

Reliability refers to whether the research can be repeated or replicated – is it consistent?

Researchers can ensure that the research is reliable by controling the variables including
extraneous variables, using a standardised procedure, using scienntific measures which
produce quantitaive data as this is easier to compare for consistency.

Inter-rater reliability refers to when two or more researchers agree on what they see. This
increases the reliability.

Validity refers to whether the study reflects the truth. Researchers can ensure validity by
using a natural environment and tasks which means that participants are less likely to show
demand characteristics and provide socially desirable responses.

Ecological validity is a type of validity which refers to whether the setting is natural for
example a setting which participants are familiar with will ave ecological validity whereas a
lab experiment which is unfamiliar will not have ecological validity.

Are observation reliable or valid?

 The most ethical observations is overt observations because the participants are aware
they’re being observed and can choose whether to take part.
 The least ethical observations a covert observation because participants are unaware
they’re being observed and so cannot provide consent
  The most reliable observation is a structured observation because the event is planned
and staged which means there can be more control over the variables.
 The least reliable observation is a natural observation because this is in a natural
setting which means it is harder to control the variables especially extraneous
variables.
 The most valid observations are natural observations and covert because it is a natural
setting that the participants are familiar with and they are unaware that they’re being
watched. This means that the observation has ecological validity because the
participants are more likely to show truthful behaviour.
 The least valid observations are structured and overt observations because the
participants are aware that they’re being observed and might show demand
characteristics. Also, with artificial setting will reduce the ecolgical validity of the
observation.

Case Studies
Case studies are an in depth study of one person or a small group of participants. Case studies
can be looking at past records e.g. medical history, family history. Often participants are
studied because the sample is unique in some way.

Strengths
 Case studies are rich in about people you want to study which increases the validity of
the data.
 Case studies have high ecological validity as often in a natural setting.

Weaknesses
 Case studies are time consuming especially if a researcher is collecting data over
many years.
 It is hard to generalise the findings as the same is only a small amount of participants
which means they do not represent the wider population.

Ethics
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research.

One way to remember the ethical guidelines is Can Do Can’t Do With Participants

 Consent – participants given permission to take part

 Debrief – participants are informed about the true aim of the research
  Confidential – participants are kept anonymous
 Deception – participants are not lied to
 Withdraw – participants can leave the research at any time
 Protection from harm – participants are not affected physically or psychologically

Calculations
You can make calculations using your data to find out the number or amount of something.

Calculations can include:

Calculation What is it? How do you work it out? Example

6, 11, 7

Add up all the numbers, 6 + 11 + 7 = 24

The average of the
Mean then divide by how
numbers.
many numbers there are. 24/3 = 8

Mean is 8

12, 3, 5.

In order:
Place the numbers in value
It’s the middle of a
Median order (low to high) and find 3, 5, 12.
sorted list of numbers.
the middle.
Median is 5

Mode The number which Put the numbers in 3, 7, 5, 13, 20, 23,
 39, 23, 40, 23, 14,
12, 56, 23, 29

order (low to high).
Then count how many of
appears most often each number. A number that
appears most often is
the mode
In order:
3, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14,
20, 23, 23, 23, 23,
29, 39, 40, 56

The mode is 23

4, 6, 9, 3, 7

The difference between 9–3=6

Take away the lowest
Range the lowest and highest
number from the biggest.
values
Range is 6

Standard Form
Standard form is a way of writing down very large or very small numbers easily.

For example, 103 = 1000, so 4 × 103 = 4000

Rules:

1. First number must be between 1 and 10

2. Make sure your powers match the number of places from the decimal place

Ratios

A ratio says how much of one thing there is compared to another thing.
There are three orange circles compared to two blue. It is expressed as 3:2.

Ratios can be scaled up.

Here the ratio is also 3 orange circles to 2 blue circles even though there are more circles.

The trick with ratios is to always multiply or divide the numbers by the same value.

Decimals, fractions and percentages

Decimals, Fractions and Percentages are just different ways of showing the same value:

A half can be written as a fraction (½), as a decimal (0.5) and as a percentage (50%).

A quarter can be written as a fraction (¼), as a decimal (0.25) and as a percentage (25%)

Below is a table of commonly used values

Percent Decimal Fraction

1% 0.01 1/100
5% 0.05 1/20

10% 0.1 1/10

12½% 0.125 1/8

20% 0.2 1/5

25% 0.25 1/4

331/3% 0.333… 1/3

50% 0.5 1/2

75% 0.75 3/4

80% 0.8 4/5

90% 0.9 9/10

99% 0.99 99/100

100% 1

125% 1.25 5/4

150% 1.5 3/2

 200% 2

Significant figures

The term significant figures refers to the number of important single digits.

This includes all digits except leading zeros. For example, “013.” has two significant figures:
1 and 3.

The number of significant figures in an expression indicates the confidence or precision with
of a quantity.

Example: We measure the garden to within 1 meter.

Our calculations give an area of 58.37215 m2
But that is way more digits than our accuracy of measurement, so we decide to use 2
significant digits.

Our final result is 58 m2 (the two significant digits are 5 and 8).

Conversions

Conversion refer to changing between measurements.

From percentage to decimal – Divide by 100 and remove the “%” sign. The easiest way to
do this is by moving the decimal point two places to the left.

For example, from 45% to 0.45

From decimal to percent – Multiply by 100 and add “%” sign.

For example, from 0.62 to 62%

From fraction to decimal – divide the top number (numerator) by the bottom number
(denominator).

For example, from 2/5 you must divide 2 by 5 which equals 0.4

From a decimal to a fraction – write the decimal over 1, multiply the top and bottom
number by 10 for every number after the decimal point. Then simplify the fraction.

For example, 0.75.

Write the decimal over 1 (0.75/1)

 Multiply the top and bottom number by 10 for every number after the decimal point (0.75 x
100 = 75) and (1/100 x 100 = 100). This equals 75/100.

Then simplify the fraction (3/4)

Fraction to percentage – Divide the top number (numerator) by the bottom number
(denominator) then multiply the result by 100 and add “%” sign.

For example, 3/8.

Divide 3 by 8 = 0.375. Then multiply by 100: 0.375 x 100 = 37.5. Add “%” equals 37.5%

Percentage to fraction – Convert to a decimal (divide by 100) then follow the steps to
convert decimals to fractions (write the decimal over 1, multiply the top and bottom number
by 10 for every number after the decimal point. Then simplify the fraction)

For example, 80%.

Convert to a decimal (80/100 = 0.8)

Write the decimal over 1 (0.8/1)

Multiply the top and bottom number by 10 for every number after the decimal point (0.8 x
100 = 80) and (1/10 x 100 = 10). This equals 8/10.

Then simplify the fraction (4/5)

Percentage change

Percentage change shows the change between values as a percent of the old value.

How to calculate percentage change:

Method 1:

Step 1: Calculate the change (subtract old value from the new value)

Step 2: Divide that change by the old value (you will get a decimal number)

Step 3: Convert that to a percentage (by multiplying by 100 and adding a “%” sign)
Note: when the new value is greater then the old value, it is a percentage increase,
otherwise it is a decrease.

Method 2:

Step 1: Divide the New Value by the Old Value (you will get a decimal number)

Step 2: Convert that to a percentage (by multiplying by 100 and adding a “%” sign)

Step 3: Subtract 100% from that

Note: when the result is positive it is a percentage increase, if negative, just

remove the minus sign and call it a decrease.