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 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

EXPLORING CLASSICAL MECHANICS

 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

Exploring Classical Mechanics

A Collection of 350+ Solved Problems for Students,
Lecturers, and Researchers

Gleb L. Kotkin
Valeriy G. Serbo
Novosibirsk State University, Russia

Second revised and enlarged English edition

1
OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo 2020
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First Edition published in 2020
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2020937520
ISBN 978-0-19-885378-7 (hbk.)
ISBN 978-0-19-885379-4 (pbk.)
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198853787.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

Preface to the second English edition

This book was written by the working physicists for students of physics faculties of
universities.
The first English edition of this book under the title Collection of Problems in Classical
Mechanics was published by Pergamon Press in 1971 with the invaluable help by the
translation editor D. ter Haar. This second English publication is based on the fourth
Russian edition of 2010 and includes new problems from among those used in teaching
at the physics faculty of Novosibirsk State University as well as the problems added in
the publications in Spanish and French. As a result, this book contains 357 problems
instead of the 289 problems that appeared in the first English edition.
We are grateful to A. V. Mikhailov for useful discussions of some new problems,
to Z. K. Silagadze for numerous indications of misprints and inaccuracies in previous
editions, and to O. V. Karpushina for an invaluable help in preparation of this manuscript.
In this edition, the main notations are:
m, e, r, p, and M = [r, p] – mass, charge, radius vector, momentum, and angular
momentum of a particle, respectively;
L, H, E, and U – Lagrangian function, Hamiltonian function, energy, and potential
energy of a system, respectively;
E and B – electric and magnetic field intensities, respectively;
ϕ and A – scalar and vector potentials, respectively, of the electromagnetic field;
c – velocity of light; and
d – solid angle element.
For problems about the motion of particles in electromagnetic fields, we use Gaussian
units, and in problems on electrical circuits, SI units.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

From the Preface to the first English edition

This collection is meant for physics students. Its contents correspond roughly to the
mechanics course in the textbooks by Landau and Lifshitz [1], Goldstein [4], or ter Haar
[6]. We hope that the reading of this collection will give pleasure not only to students
studying mechanics, but also to people who already know it. We follow the order in
which the material is presented by Landau and Lifshitz, except that we start using the
Lagrangian equations in § 4. The problems in §§ 1–3 can be solved using the Newtonian
equations of motion together with the energy, linear momentum and angular momentum
conservation laws.
As a rule, the solution of a problem is not finished with obtaining the required
formulae. It is necessary to analyse the result, and this is by no means the “mechanical”
part of the solution. It is also very useful to investigate what happens if the conditions
of the problem are varied. We have, therefore, suggested further problems at the end of
several solutions.
A large portion of the problems were chosen for the practical classes with students
from the physics faculty of the Novosibirsk State University for a course on theoretical
mechanics given by Yu. I. Kulakov. We want especially to emphasize his role in the
choice and critical discussion of a large number of problems. We owe a great debt to I. F.
Ginzburg for useful advice and hints which we took into account. We are very grateful
to V. D. Krivchenkov whose active interest helped us to persevere until the end.
We are extremely grateful to D. ter Haar for his help in organizing an English edition
of our book.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

§1
Integration of one-dimensional
equations of motion

1.1. Describe the motion of a particle in the following potential fields U(x):

a) U(x) = A(e−2αx − 2e−αx ) (Morse potential, Fig. 1a);

b) U(x) = − U20 (Fig. 1b);
cosh αx
c) U(x) = U0 tan2 αx (Fig. 1c).

(a) (b) (c) U

U
U
x x x

Figure 1

1.2. Describe the motion of a particle in the field U

U(x) = − Ax4 for the case when its energy is equal to zero.
E

1.3. Give an approximate description of the motion of a

particle in the field U(x) near the tuning point x = a (Fig. 2). x
a
Hint: Use a Taylor expansion of U(x) near the point x = a.
Consider the cases U  (a) = 0 and U  (a) = 0, U  (a) = 0. Figure 2

1.4. Determine how the period of a particle moving in the field in Fig. 3 tends to infinity
as its energy E approaches Um .

Exploring Classical Mechanics: A Collection of 350+ Solved Problems for Students, Lecturers, and Researchers. First Edition.
Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo, Oxford University Press (2020). © Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo 2020.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198853787.001.0001
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

4 Exploring Classical Mechanics [1.5

U
U
Um E
E Um

x x
a x1 b a c x2

Figure 3 Figure 4

1.5. a) Estimate the period of the particle motion in the field U(x) (Fig. 4), when its
energy is close to Um (i.e., E − Um  Um − Umin ).
b) Determine during which part of the period the particle is in the interval from x to
x + dx.
c) Determine during which part of the period the particle has a momentum mẋ in the
interval from p to p + dp.
d) In the plane x, p = mẋ represent qualitatively lines E(x, p) = const for the cases
E < Um , E = U m , E > U m .

1.6. A particle of mass m moves along a circle of radius l in a vertical plane under the
influence of the field of gravity (mathematical pendulum). Describe its motion for the
case when its kinetic energy E in the lowest point is equal to 2mgl.
Estimate the period of revolution of the pendulum for the case when
E − 2mgl2mgl.

1.7. Describe the motion of a mathematical pendulum for an arbitrary value

of the energy.
Hint: The time dependence of the angle the pendulum makes with the vertical can be
expressed in terms of elliptic functions (e.g. see [1], § 37).

1.8. Determine the change in the motion of a particle moving along a section which does
not contain turning points when the field U(x) is changed by a small amount δU(x).
Consider the applicability of the results obtained for the case of a section near the
turning point.

1.9. Find the change in the motion of a particle caused by a small change δU(x) in the
field U(x) in the following cases:

a) U(x) = 12 mω2 x2 , δU(x) = 13 mαx3 ;

b) U(x) = 12 mω2 x2 , δU(x) = 14 mβx4 .

1.10. Determine the change in the period of a finite orbit of a particle caused by the
change in the field U(x) by a small amount δU(x).
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

1.12] §1. Integration of one-dimensional equations of motion 5

1.11. Find the change in the period of a particle moving in a field U(x) caused by adding
to the field U(x) a small term δU(x) in the following cases:

a) U(x) = 12 mω2 x2 (a harmonic oscillator), δU(x) = 14 mβx4 ;

b) U(x) = 12 mω2 x2 , δU(x) = 13 mαx3 ;
c) U(x) = A(e−2αx − 2e−αx ), δU(x) = −Veαx (V  A).

1.12. The particle moves in the field U(x) = U0 with the energy E > U0 . Find the
cosh2 αx
particle delay time at the motion from x = −∞ to x = +∞ in comparison with the free
motion time with the same energy.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

§2
Motion of a particle in
three-dimensional fields

γ
2.1. Describe qualitatively the motion of a particle in the field U(r) = − αr − 3 for
r
different values of the angular momentum and of the energy.

2.2. Find the trajectories and the laws of motion of a particle in the field

−V , when r < R, U
U(r) =
0, when r > R R r

(Fig. 5, “spherical rectangular potential well”) for different values −V

of the angular momentum and of the energy.

2.3. Determine the trajectory of a particle in the field U(r) = Figure 5

α + β . Give an expression for the change in the direction of
r r2
velocity when the particle is scattered as a function of angular
momentum and energy.

β
2.4. Determine the trajectory of a particle in the field U(r) = αr − 2 . Find the time it
r
takes the particle to fall to the centre of the field from a distance r. How many revolutions
around the centre will the particle then make?

β
2.5. Determine the trajectory of a particle in the field U(r) = − αr + 2 . Find the
r
angle ϕ between the direction of radius vector at two successive passages through the
pericentre (i.e., when r = rmin ); also find the period of the radial oscillations, Tr . Under
what conditions will the orbit be a closed one?
β
2.6. Determine the trajectory of a particle in the field U(r) = − αr − 2 . A field of this
r
kind arises in the motion of a relativistic particle in the Coulomb field in the special theory
of relativity; see [7], § 42.1 for details.

Exploring Classical Mechanics: A Collection of 350+ Solved Problems for Students, Lecturers, and Researchers. First Edition.
Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo, Oxford University Press (2020). © Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo 2020.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198853787.001.0001
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

2.16] §2. Motion of a particle in three-dimensional fields 7

2.7. For what values of the angular momentum M is it possible to have finite orbits in
the field U(r) for the following cases:
−r
a) U(r) = − αer ; b) U(r) = −Ve−
2 r2
.

2.8. A particle falls from a finite distances towards the centre of the field U(r) = −αr −n .
Will it make a finite number of revolutions around the centre? Will it take a finite time
to fall towards the centre? Find the equation of the orbit for small r.
2.9. A particle in the field U(r) flies off to infinity from a distance r = 0. Is the number
of revolutions around the centre made by the particle finite for the following cases?

a) U(r) = αr −n b) U(r) = −αr −n

2.10. How long will it take a particle to fall from a distance R to the centre of the field
U(r) = −α/r. The initial velocity of the particle is zero. Treat the orbit as a degenerate
ellipse.
2.11. One particle of mass m moves along the x-axis from a long distance with velocity
v towards the origin O of the coordinate system. Another particle of the same mass
moves towards the origin O along the y-axis from a long distance with the same velocity
magnitude. If the particles didn’t interact, the second would pass through point O in
time τ after the first one. However, they repulse from each other, and potential energy of
interaction is U(r) = α/r, where r is the distance between particles. Find the minimum
distance between the particles.
2.12. Two particles with masses m1 and m2 move with velocities v1 and v2 from long
−→
distances along the crossing lines, the distance between which is equal to AB = ρ. If
particles didn’t interact, particle 1 would pass the point of minimum distance A at time
τ earlier than particle 2 would pass the point B. However, there is the force of attraction
between the particles, which is given by the potential energy U(r) = −β/r 2 .

a) At what relation between ρ and τ will particles collide?

b) At what distance from the point A will such a collision occur?

2.13. Determine the minimal distance between the particles, the one approaching from
infinity with an impact parameter ρ and an initial velocity v and the other one initially at
rest. The masses of the particles are m1 and m2 , and the interaction law is U(r) = α/r n .
2.14. Determine in the centre of a mass system the finite orbits of two particles of
masses m1 and m2 , and an interaction law U(r) = −α/r.
2.15. Determine the position of the focus of a beam of particles close to the beam axis,
when the particles are scattered in a central field U(r) under the assumption that a particle
flying along the axis is turned back.
2.16. Find the inaccessible region of space for a beam of particles flying along the z-axis
with a velocity v and being scattered by a field U(r) = α/r.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

8 Exploring Classical Mechanics [2.17

2.17. Find the inaccessible region of space for particles flying with a velocity v from a
point A in all directions and moving in a potential field U(r) = −α/r.

2.18. Use the integral of motion A = [v, M] − α rr (the Laplace vector – see [1], §15 and
[7], § 3.3) to find the orbit of a particle moving in the field U(r) = −α/r.

2.19. The spacecraft is moving in a circular orbit of the radius R around the Earth. A
body, whose mass is negligible in comparison with the mass of the spacecraft, is thrown
from the spacecraft with relative velosity v, directed to the centre of the Earth. Find the
orbit of the body.
Hint: To find the orbit of the body, try using the Laplace vector.
(This problem is formulated based on the real incident: during a spacewalk, the
cosmonaut A. Leonov threw the plug from the camera in the direction of the Earth –
see [8], § 8.)

2.20. Determine in quadratures the change of the period T of radial oscillations

of a particle moving in the central field U(r) when this field is changed by a small
amount δU(r).

2.21. Show that the orbit of a particle in the field

α
U(r) = − e−r/D
r

is a lowly precession ellipse when rmax  D. Find the angular velocity of precession.

2.22. Find the precessional velocity of the orbit in the field U(r) = −α/r 1+ε ,
when |ε|  1.

2.23. Find the angular velocity of the orbit precession of a particle in the field

β
U(r) = 12 mω2 r 2 +
r4

for β  mω2 a6 , mω2 b6 , where a and b are parameters of the unperturbed trajectory:
 r cos ϕ 2  r sin ϕ 2
+ = 1.
a b

2.24. The particle slides on the surface of a smooth paraboloid of revolution whose axis
(the z-axis) is directed straight up:

x2 + y2
z= .
2l

Find the angular velocity of the orbit precession. The maximum and the minimum
distances of a particle from the z-axis are a and b, where a  l.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

2.30] §2. Motion of a particle in three-dimensional fields 9

2.25. Study the motion of the Earth–Moon system in the field of the Sun. Assume that
the mass of the Moon is 81 times less than the mass of the Earth, and the distance from
the Earth to the Moon (r = 380 thousand km) is a lot less than the average distances
to the Sun (R = 150 million km).

a) For simplicity, taking that the plane of the Moon orbit coincides with the plane of
the Earth orbit, show that the potential energy of the Earth–Moon system in the
field of the Sun, averaged over a month, has the form

α β
U(R) = − − 3,
R R

where R is the distance from the Sun to the centre of mass of the Earth–Moon
system. Determine the precession of perihelion for a 100-year period.
b) The plane of the Moon’s orbit makes an angle of θ = 5◦ with the plane of the
Earth’s orbit. Determine the related average velocity of precession for the Moon’s
orbital plane.

2.26. Determine the angular velocity of the orbit precession of a particle in the field
U(r) = − αr + δU(r) if the orbit eccentricity e is much less than 1, assuming

δU(r) = δU(a) + (r − a)δU  (a) + 12 (r − a)2 δU  (a),

where a = 12 (rmax + rmin ) is the average orbit radius.

2.27. Determine the angular velocity of the orbit precession of a particle in the field
U(r) = − αr + δU(r) (δU(r) is a small correction) up to second order in δU(r) inclusively.

2.28. Find the equation of motion of the orbit of a particle moving in the field U(r) =
γ γ
− αr + 3 , assuming 3 to be a small correction to the Coulomb field.
r r

2.29. Show that the problem of the motion of two charged particles in a uniform electric
field E can be reduced to the problem of the motion of the centre of mass and that of
the motion of a particle in a given field.

2.30. Under what conditions can the problem of the motion of two charged particles in
a constant uniform magnetic field B be separated into the problem of the centre of mass
motion and the relative motion problem?
Take the vector potential of the magnetic field in the form

A(ri ) = 12 [B, ri ] , i = 1, 2.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

10 Exploring Classical Mechanics [2.31

2.31. Express the kinetic energy, the linear momentum, and the angular momentum of
a system of N particles in terms of the Jacobi coordinates:

m1 r1 + . . . + mn rn
ξn = − rn+1 (n = 1 . . . N − 1),
m1 + . . . + mn
m1 r1 + . . . + mN rN
ξN = .
m1 + . . . + mN

2.32. A particle with a velocity v at infinity collides with another particle of the same
mass m which is at rest. Their interaction potential energy is U(r) = α/r n and the collision
is a central one. Find the point where the first particle comes to rest.
2.33. Prove that
e
MB + [r, B]2 ,
2c

is the integral of motion for a charged particle in a uniform constant magnetic field B.
Here M = m[r, v], and c is the velocity of light.
2.34. Find the trajectory and the law of motion of a charged particle in the magnetic
field B(r) = gr/r 3 (the field of the magnetic monopole).
Such form has a field of a thin long solenoid outside its end at distances which are
large compared to the solenoid’s diameter, but small compared to its length.
2.35. Give a qualitative description of the motion and the shape of the orbit of a charged
particle moving in the field of a magnetic dipole μ, in the plane perpendicular to the
vector μ. Take the vector potential of magnetic dipole in the form A(r) = [μ, r]/r 3 .
2.36. a) Give a qualitative description of the motion of a charged particle in the field
U(r) = 12 mλr 2 , where r is a distance from the z-axis, for the case where there is a constant
uniform magnetic field B parallel to the z-axis present.
b) Find the law of motion and the orbit of a charged particle moving in the field
U(r) = α/r 2 in a plane perpendicular to a constant uniform magnetic field B.
2.37. A charged particle moves in the Coulomb field U(r) = −α/r in a plane perpen-
dicular to a constant uniform magnetic field B. Find the orbit of the particle. Study the
case when B is small and the case when the field U(r) is a small perturbation.
2.38. Describe the motion of two identical charged particles in a constant uniform
magnetic field B for the case when their orbits lie in the same plane which is perpen-
dicular to B and where we may consider their interaction energy U(r) = e2 /r to be a
small perturbation.
2.39. Show that the quantity
α
F [v, M] − Fr + 12 [F, r]2
r

is a constant of motion in the field U(r) = − αr − Fr where F = const.

Give the meaning of this integral of motion when F is small.
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

2.45] §2. Motion of a particle in three-dimensional fields 11

2.40. Study the effect of a small extra term δU(r) = −Fr, where F = const, added to
the Coulomb field on the finite orbit of a particle.

a) Find the average rate of change of the angular momentum, averaged over one
period.
b) Find the time-dependence of the angular momentum, the size, and the orientation
of the orbit for the case when the force F lies in the orbital plane.
c) Do the same as under b) for the case when the orientation of the force is arbitrary.

Hint: Write down the equations of motion for the vectors M = m[r, v] and A =
[v, M] − α r/r averaged over one period and solve them.
2.41. Find the systematic displacement of a finite orbit of a charged particle moving
in the field U(r) = −α/r under influence of weak constant uniform electric E and mag-
netic B fields.

a) Consider the limiting case when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the orbit
plane and the electric field is in this plane.
b) Consider the general case.

2.42. Find the systematic change of the elliptic orbit of a particle in the field
U(r) = −α/r under the influence of a small perturbation

δU(r, θ) = −βr 2 (3 cos2 θ − 1).

Only consider the case when the orbit plane passes through the z-axis. This problem
is a simplified model of the satellite motion in the Earth field taking into account the
gravitational field of the Moon near the Earth space.
2.43. Taking that the orbit of the Moon in the Earth field is an ellipse lying in the plane
of the Earth orbit, find the systematic change of the Moon orbit under the influence of
the perturbation

δU(r, χ) = − 12 m2 r 2 (3 cos2 χ − 1),

where m is the Moon mass,  is the angular velocity of the Earth around the Sun, χ is
the angle between Earth to Sun and Earth to Moon directions.
2.44. Find the systematic displacement of the finite orbit of a charged particle moving
in the field U(r) = −α/r and in the field of the magnetic dipole μ, if the effect of the
latter may be considered to be a small perturbation. Take the vector potential in the form
A(r) = [μ, r]/r 3 .
2.45. Find the average precession rate of the orbit of a particle moving in the field
U(r) = −α/r under the influence of a small additional “friction force” F = β v̈ (such
2
form has the force of radiation damping; in this case, β = 3 2 q , where q is the charge of
3
c
the particle and c is the velocity of light; see [2], § 75).
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

§3
Scattering in a given field. Collision
between particles

3.1. Find the differential cross-section for the scattering of particles with initial velocity
parallel to the z-axes by smooth elastic surfaces of revolution ρ(z) for the following cases:
z , 0  z  π a;
a) ρ = b sin a
b) ρ = Az , 0 < n < 1;
n
2
c) ρ = b − az , a2  z < ∞.
b

3.2. Find the surface of revolution which is such that the differential cross-section for
elastic scattering by this surface coincides with the Rutherford scattering cross-section.
3.3. Find the differential cross-section for the scattering of particles by spherical
“potential barrier”:

V, when r < a,
U(r) =
0, when r > a.

3.4. Find the cross-section for the process where a particle falls towards the centre of
the field U(r) when U(r) is given by:

β β γ
a) U(r) = αr − 2 , b) U(r) = 2 − 4 .
r r r
3.5. Calculate the cross-section for particles to hit a small sphere of radius R placed at
the centre of the field U(r) for the cases:

β γ
a) U(r) = − αn , n  2; b) U(r) = 2 − 4 .
r r r
3.6. A uniform beam of meteors with velocity v∞ flies towards the planet. What fraction
of meteorites that fell on the planet falls on the part invisible from the beam side? Take
a planet as a uniform ball of radius R and mass m0 .

Exploring Classical Mechanics: A Collection of 350+ Solved Problems for Students, Lecturers, and Researchers. First Edition.
Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo, Oxford University Press (2020). © Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo 2020.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198853787.001.0001
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

24 Exploring Classical Mechanics [4.36

when the function U(x) has the following form:

g2
a) U(x) = ,
x2
g 2 a2
b) U(x) = .
sinh2 ax

4.36. Consider the collision of the three particles described in the preceding problem.
Assume x1 > x2 > x3 , let the distances between the particles be infinitely large at t →
−∞, and let their velocities vi = ẋi (t = −∞) be such that v3 > v2 > v1 . Find vi = ẋi
(t = +∞).
 OUP CORRECTED PROOF – FINAL, 8/7/2020, SPi

§5
Small oscillations of systems with
one degree of freedom

5.1. Find frequency ω of the small oscillations for particles moving in the following fields
U(x):

a) U(x) = V cos αx − Fx; b) U(x) = V (α 2 x2 − sin2 αx).

5.2. Find the frequency of the small oscillations for the system depicted in Fig. 13. The
system rotates with the angular velocity  in the field of gravity around a vertical axis.
5.3. A point charge q of mass m moves along a circle of radius R in a vertical plane and
in the field of gravity. Another charge q is fixed at the lowest point of the circle (Fig. 14).
Find the equilibrium position and the frequency of the small oscillations for the first
point charge.
5.4. Describe the motion along a curve close to a circle for a point particle in the central
field U(r) = −α/r n (0 < n < 2).
5.5. Find the frequency of the small oscillations of a spherical pendulum (a particle
of mass m suspended a string of length l) if the angle of deflection from the vertical, θ
oscillates about the value θ0 .

A
a θ a

m m
R
a a ϕ
q m
m
q

Figure 13 Figure 14

Exploring Classical Mechanics: A Collection of 350+ Solved Problems for Students, Lecturers, and Researchers. First Edition.
Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo, Oxford University Press (2020). © Gleb L. Kotkin and Valeriy G. Serbo 2020.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780198853787.001.0001
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 INDEX.

Abdominal Cavity, 123

Abdominal fins, 42
Abramis, 602
Abrostomus, 596
Acanthaphritis, 466
Acanthias, 331
Acanthicus, 576
Acanthobrama, 604
Acanthoclinus, 498
Acanthodes, 355
Acanthodini, 355
Acantholabrus, 528
Acanthonus, 547
Acanthophthalmus, 606
Acanthopsis, 606
Acanthopterygiau, 41
Acanthopterygii, 374
Acanthorhodeus, 601
Acanthurus, 438, 439
Acanus, 421
Acara, 536
Acclimatisation, 185
Acentronura, 683
Acerina, 378
Acestra, 579
Achilognathus, 601
Acipenser, 361
Acipenseridæ, 360
Acrochilus, 601
Acrochordonichthys, 567
Acrodus, 330
Acrogaster, 421
Acrognathus, 631
Acrolepis, 370
Acronuridæ, 438
Acronurus, 439
Acropoma, 395
Acyprinoid division, 218
Adipose eyelid, 113
Adipose fin, 42
Aegæonichthys, 476
Aellopos, 325
Aelurichthys, 569
Aesopia, 558
Aëtobatis, 345
African region, 227
Agassiz, 20, 31, 32
Ageniosus, 572
Agnus, 463
Agoniates, 610
Agonostoma, 504
Agonus, 480
Agrammus, 491
Agriopus, 416
Ailia, 566
Aipichthys, 441
Air-bladder, 142
Akysis, 567
Albacore, 458
Albinism, 183
Alborella, 604
Albula, 660
Albulichthys, 596
Alburnus, 603
Alepocephalus, 664
Alestes, 608
Ale-wife, 659
Alisphenoid, 56, 88
Allice Shad, 659
Alopecias, 322
Ambassis, 393
Amblyopsis, 618
Amblyopus, 489
Amblypharyngodon, 598
Amblypterus, 370
Amblyrhynchichthys, 596
Amia, 372
Amioidei, 370
Amiurus, 567
Ammocoetes, 693
Ammodytes, 550
Ammopleurops, 559
Ammotretis, 557
Amphioxus, 696
Amphipnous, 668
Amphiprion, 525
Amphisile, 509
Amphistium, 442
Anabas, 516
Anableps, 617
Anacanthini, 537
Anacanthus, 684
Anacyrtus, 611
Anal fin, 40, 42
Anampses, 529
Anapterus, 582
Anarrhichas, 492
Anastomus, 608
Anchovy, 656
Ancistrodon, 319
Ancylodon, 430
Anema, 463
Anenchelum, 433
Angel-fish, 334
Angler, 470
Anguilla, 671
Angular bone, 54, 91
Anomalops, 449
Anoplogaster, 422
Antarctic ocean, 289
Antennarius, 473
Anthias, 380
Anticitharus, 556
Antigonia, 449
Aphanopus, 434
Aphareus, 390
Aphoristia, 559
Aphredoderus, 396
Aphritis, 466
Aphyocharax, 610
Aphyocypris, 598
Aphyonus, 548
Apionichthys, 559
Apistus, 415
Aploactis, 417
Apocryptes, 487
Apodichthys, 496
Apogon, 394
Apophyses, 51
Appendices pyloricæ, 131
Aprion, 397
Apsilus, 397
Apua, 606
Arapaima, 654
Archæus, 442
Archipterygium, 74
Arctic ocean, 261
Arctic zone, 241
Argentina, 650
Arges, 575
Argyropelecus, 628
Argyriosus, 443
Aristotle, 1
Arius, 569
Arnoglossus, 556
Arrhamphus, 621
Arripis, 393
Artedi, 9
Artedius, 480
Arthropterus, 342
Articulary bone, 54, 90
Articulated rays, 40
Asima, 405
Aspidoparia, 602
Aspidophoroides, 480
Aspidorhynchidæ, 369
Aspius, 603
Aspredo, 580
Aspro, 379
Astracanthus, 314
Astrape, 340
Astrolepis, 354
Astronesthes, 629
Astrophysus, 572
Astroplebus, 575
Astroptychius, 314
Ateleopus, 553
Atherina, 500
Atherinichthys, 501
Atlantic, tropical, 278
Atlantic, northern, 262
Atopochilus, 570
Atopomycterus, 689
Atypichthys, 402
Auchenaspis, 354
Auchenipterus, 572
Auchenoglanis, 569
Aulacocephalus, 383
Aulolepis, 631
Aulichthys, 508
Auliscops, 507, 508
Aulopus, 587
Aulopyge, 596
Aulorhynchus, 508
Aulostoma, 507, 508
Ausonia, 455
Ausonius, 3
Autochthont, 214
Autostylic skull, 71
Auxis, 459
Avola, 604

Badis, 418
Baer, 32
Bagarius, 570
Bagrichthys, 567
Bagroides, 567
Bagropsis, 568
Bagrus, 567
Baird, 29
Bakker, 32
Balfour, 32, 33
Balistes, 684
Ballan Wrasse, 527
Band-fish, 490
Barbel, 594
Barbels, 37
Barbichthys, 596
Barbus, 594
Barilius, 602
Barracuda, 437, 499
Barramunda, 357
Barynotus, 596
Basibranchial, 58
Basihyal, 58
Basioccipital, 56, 87
Basisphenoid, 56, 57, 89
Basking shark, 322
Bass, 376
Bastard Dorey, 388
Bathydraco, 465
Bathygadus, 552
Bathylagus, 650
Bathynectes, 547
Bathyophis, 629
Bathypterois, 583
Bathysaurus, 582
Bathythrissa, 668
Bathytroctes, 664
Batoidei, 335
Batrachocephalus, 570
Batrachus, 467
Bayad, 567
Bdellostoma, 695
Becker, 408
Bellows-fish, 509
Belodontichthys, 566
Belon, 3
Belone, 620
Belonesox, 617
Belonostomus, 369
Bembras, 480
Benedenius, 370
Benthophilus, 489
Berycidæ, 420
Berycopsis, 421
Beryx, 422
Betta, 518
Bib, 541
Bichir, 364
Bitterling, 601
Black Bass, 393
Black-fish, 452, 527
Black Head, 596
Black Horses, 589
Black Sea-bream, 406
Blanchard, 28
Bleak, 604
Bleeker, 30
Bleekeria, 550
Blenniidæ, 492
Blenniops, 496
Blennius, 493
Blennodesmus, 538
Blennophis, 498
Blenny, 492
Blepsias, 480
Blind fish, 618
Bloch, 13
Blood-corpuscles, 150
Blue-fish, 447
Boar-fish, 388, 449
Bocage, 28
Bocourt, 31
Bola, 602
Boleophthalmus, 487
Boleosoma, 379
Bolty, 535
Bombay-duck, 584
Bonaparte, 28
Bonelli, 7
Bonito, 458
Bony Pike, 367
Borer, 694
Botia, 605
Bovichthys, 465
Bow-fin, 372
Box, 406
Brachionichthys, 474
Brachymystax, 646
Brachypleura, 556
Brackish water fishes, 250
Brain, 97
Brama, 454
Branched rays, 40
Branchiæ, 136
Branchial arches, 58
Branchiostegals, 39, 58, 91
Branchiostoma, 696
Bream, 602
Bregmaceros, 545
Brill, 555
British district, 263
Brontes, 575
Brook-trout, 646
Brosmius, 546
Brotula, 546
Brotulophis, 549
Brünnich, 13
Brycon, 610
Bryconæthiops, 610
Bryconops, 610
Bryttus, 396
Buccal cavity, 123
Bulbus aortæ, 152
Bull-head, 476
Bull-trout, 644
Bulti, 535
Buffaloe, 589
Bummaloh, 584
Bungia, 596
Bunocephalichthys, 580
Bunocephalus, 580
Bunocottus, 480
Burbot, 544
Bursa entiana, 128
Burton Skate, 341
Butter-fish, 496, 533
Bynni, 594
Bythites, 549

Cachius, 604
Cænotropus, 607
Cæsio, 390
Calamoichthys, 364
Californian district, 271
Calamostoma, 680
Callanthias, 381
Callichrous, 566
Callichthys, 575
Callionymus, 489
Callipteryx, 462
Callomystax, 573
Callophysus, 569
Callorhynchus, 350
Callyodon, 532
Camper, 16
Campostoma, 596
Cantharina, 405
Cantharus, 405
Cantor, 30
Capelin, 647
Capello, 28
Cape of Good Hope, 283
Capitodus, 405
Capoëta, 593
Capros, 449
Carangidæ, 440
Carangopsis, 442
Caranx, 442
Carapus, 667
Carassius, 591
Carboniferous fishes, 196
Carcharias, 316
Carchariidæ, 316
Carcharodon, 320
Carcharopsis, 319
Cardlike teeth, 126
Caribe, 613
Carmoot, 563
Carp, 589
Carpals, 59
Carpiodes, 589
Cartilage-bones, 87
Castelnau, 31
Cataphracti, 480
Cat-fishes, 568
Catla, 592
Catopra, 418
Catoprion, 613
Catostomus, 589
Caturidæ, 371
Caudal fin, 40
Cebidichthys, 498
Central American district, 279
Centrarchus, 396
Centridermichthys, 477
Centrina, 331
Centriscus, 509
Centrolabrus, 528
Ceutrolepis, 370
Centrolophus, 452
Centromochlus, 572
Centronotus, 496
Centrophorus, 331
Centropogon, 417
Centropomus, 379
Ceutropristis, 380
Centroscyllium, 332
Centrum, 51
Cephalacanthus, 482
Cephalaspis, 353
Cephaloptera, 347
Cephenoplosus, 368
Cepola, 490
Ceratias, 472
Ceratichthys, 596
Ceratobranchial, 58
Ceratodus, 357
Ceratohyal, 58
Ceratoptera, 347
Cerebellum, 97
Cestracion, 330
Cestraciontidæ, 328
Cetengraulis, 656
Cetopsis, 572
Chaca, 564
Chad, 408
Chænichthys, 466
Chætobranchus, 537
Chætodon, 398
Chætopterus, 390
Chætostomus, 576
Chalceus, 610
Chalcinopsis, 610
Chalcinus, 610
Champsodon, 464
Channa, 513
Chanodichthys, 604
Chanos, 662
Characinidæ, 606
Characodon, 615
Charr, 645
Chasmodes, 494
Chatoëssus, 657
Chauliodus, 628
Chaunax, 474
Cheilio, 530
Chela, 604
Chelmo, 399
Chiasmodus, 546
Chilian district, 288
Chilinus, 528
Chilobranchus, 669
Chilodactylus, 411
Chilodipterus, 395
Chilomycterus, 689
Chilorhinus, 674
Chiloscyllium, 326, 327
Chimæra, 349
Chimæridæ, 348
Chimarrhichthys, 466
Chiracanthus, 355
Chirocentrites, 656
Chirocentrodon, 660
Chirocentrus, 663
Chirodon, 609
Chirodus, 370
Chirolepis, 370
Chironemus, 411
Chirus, 491
Chlorophthalmus, 587
Chœrops, 530
Chologaster, 618
Chomatodus, 329
Chondropterygii, 313
Chondrostei, 360
Chondrosteus, 363
Chondrostoma, 600
Chorda dorsalis, 63
Chorinemus, 446
Chorismodactylus, 417
Chorisochismus, 512
Chromatophors, 183
Chromides, 534
Chromis, 535
Chrysichthys, 567
Chrysophrys, 409
Chub, 596, 599, 600
Cichla, 536
Cichlops, 466
Circulation, organs of, 150
Cirrhilabrus, 530
Cirrhina, 596
Cirrhites, 411
Cirrhitidæ, 410
Cirrostomi, 696
Citharichthys, 556
Citharinus, 607
Citharus, 556
Cladacanthus, 314
Cladodus, 328
Clarias, 563
Clarotes, 567
Claspers, 167
Clavicula, 59, 92
Clepticus, 530
Climbing Perch, 516
Clinus, 495
Cloudy Bay cod, 549
Clupea, 658
Clupeichthys, 660
Clupeoides, 660
Cnidoglanis, 564
Coal-fish, 541
Cobitis, 605
Coccia, 628
Coccosteus, 351
Cochlognathus, 596
Cochliodus, 329
Cock-and-hen Paddle, 484
Cod-fishes, 539
Cœcal stomach, 130
Coelacanthidæ, 365
Coelodus, 367
Coelogaster, 656
Coelonotus, 681
Coelorhynchus, 433
Coffer-fish, 686
Coilia, 657
Collichthys, 430
Commerson, 13
Conger, 673
Congrogadina, 550
Congromuræna, 674
Conodon, 386
Conodonts, 193
Conodus, 368
Conorhynchus, 569
Conus arteriosus, 151
Cook, 527
Copidoglanis, 564
Coracoid, 59, 92
Coral-fishes, 397, 525
Corax, 317
Coregonus, 647
Coridodax, 533
Coris, 530
Cork-wing, 527
Cornide, 13
Corpora quadrigemina, 103
Corpora restiformia, 99
Corpora striata, 100
Corvina, 430
Corvo, 429
Corynopoma, 607
Coryphæna, 452
Coryphænoides, 552
Cosmolepis, 370
Cosmoptychius, 370
Cossyphus, 528
Costa, 28
Cottoperca, 466
Cottus, 476
Cotylis, 512
Couch, 27
Couchia, 544
Craig-fluke, 557
Creagrutus, 610
Cremnobates, 495
Crenicichla, 537
Crenidens, 406
Crenilabrus, 527
Crenuchus, 612
Crepidogaster, 513
Cretaceous fishes, 199
Cricacanthus, 314
Cristiceps, 495
Crossochilus, 596
Crossognathus, 656
Crossorhinus, 328
Crossostoma, 604
Crucian carp, 591
Crura cerebri, 98
Cryptacanthodes, 496
Cryptopterus, 566
Ctenododipteridæ, 359
Ctenodus, 359
Ctenoid scales, 46
Ctenolabrus, 527
Ctenopharyngodon, 601
Ctenopoma, 516
Ctenoptychius, 329
Cubiceps, 456
Culter, 604
Curimatus, 607
Cut-lips, 596
Cuvier, 17
Cyathaspis, 354
Cybium, 459
Cyclobatis, 340
Cycloid scales, 46
Cyclopoma, 375
Cyclopterus, 484
Cycloptychius, 370
Cyclostomata, 691
Cyclurus, 588
Cyema, 670
Cymolutes, 530
Cynodon, 611
Cynoglossus, 558
Cynolebias, 615
Cyprinidæ, 587
Cyprinion, 598
Cyprinodon, 614
Cyprinoid division, 217
Cyprinus, 589
Cyttidæ, 450
Cyttus, 451

Dab, 557
Dace, 599, 600
Dactylopterus, 481
Dactyloscopus, 498
Dangila, 596
Danio, 602
Dascyllus, 525
Datnioides, 397
Daurade, 409
Day, 30
Deal-fish, 522
Decodon, 530
Deep-sea fishes, 296
Dekay, 29
Dendrodus, 365
Dentary, 54, 91
Dentex, 389
Dercetis, 666
Dermal spines, 53
Dermoskeleton, 85
Devil-fishes, 344
Devonian fishes, 193, 194
Diagramma, 386
Diana, 455
Dibranchus, 475
Dicerobatis, 347
Dicotylichthys, 689
Dicrotus, 437
Dictyosoma, 498
Didymaspis, 354
Digestion, organs of, 121
Dimeracanthus, 314
Dinematichthys, 549
Dinichthys, 352
Diodon, 689
Dioecious, 157
Diplocrepis, 513
Diplomystax, 569
Diplophos, 629
Diploprion, 383
Diplopterus, 365
Dipnoi, 355
Dipterodon, 406
Dipterus, 359
Diptychus, 595
Diretmus, 449
Discoboli, 483
Discognathus, 593
Discopyge, 340
Distichodus, 612
Ditrema, 534
Dog-fishes, 325, 619
Doliichthys, 487
Dolphins, 453
Domesticated fishes, 185
Domine, 436
Donovan, 17
Doras, 572
Doratonotus, 530
Dorsal fin, 40
Dorsch, 540
Dory, 450
Doryichthys, 681
Doydixodon, 406
Dragonet, 489
Drepane, 402
Drepanephorus, 331
Drum, 427
Ductor, 442
Ductus choledochus, 133
Ductus cysticus, 133
Duhamel, 13
Dules, 384
Duméril, 33
Dussumieria, 662
Duverney, 7
Duymæria, 530

Eagle-Rays, 344
Ear, 116
Echeneis, 460
Echinorhinus, 333
Echiostoma, 629
Ectopterygoid, 90
Edaphodon, 349
Eel, 671
Eel-pout, 544
Egertonia, 526
Elacate, 460
Elasmodus, 349
Elasmognathus, 349
Electric Eel, 667
Electric organs, 94
Electric Rays, 339
Electric Sheath-fish, 574
Eleotris, 488
Elonichthys, 370
Elopichthys, 604
Elops, 661
Embiotocidæ, 533
Encheliophis, 549
Enchelycore, 677
Enchodus, 433
Endoskeleton, 85
Engraulis, 656
Enneodon, 687
Enoplosus, 380
Entopterygoid, 55, 90
Epalzeorhynchus, 596
Ephippus, 402
Epibranchial, 59
Epibulus, 528
Epicoracoid, 59
Epididymis, 167
Epigionichthys, 696
Epihyal, 58
Epinnula, 436
Epioticum, 88
Epiphysis, 98
Epitympanic, 55
Equatorial zone, 218, 272
Eques, 431
Equula, 449
Eremophilus, 581
Erethistes, 580