THEODOLITES

Introduction
Transit or theodolite is an instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical
angles. It was invented by Roemer, a Danish astronomer in 1690. The instrument
was used to observe the passage (transit) of stars across any portion of the celestial
meridian. About a century later it was modified to suit the surveying requirements
and even horizontal angles could be measured with it. In 1830, further additions
were made to this basic instrument to make possible the measurement of several
things apart from the measurement of vertical and horizontal angles. Because of its
variety of uses, such as the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles,
prolonging a straight line, measurement of bearings, and measurement of
horizontal and vertical distances and determination of the direction of true north, it
is sometimes referred to as universal instrument.
Depending upon the facilities provided for reading of observations the theodolites
may be classified as simple vernier theodolite, micrometer theodolite, optical
(glass arc) theodolite and electronic theodolite. Though the first two are obsolete.
A modern theodolite is compact, light in weight, simple in design and can be used
rough. All the movable parts and scales are fully enclosed and virtually dust and
moisture proof. The size of a theodolite is defined by its lower graduated circle.
For example, a 20 cm theodolite means the diameter of the graduated circle of the
lower plate is 20 cm. The size of the theodolites varies from 8 to 25 cm.
Classification
Transit Theodolite
A theodolite is said to be a transit one when its telescope can be revolved through
180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus directing the telescope in
exactly opposite direction. The various parts of the transit theodolite are shown in
Fig. 4.1. The vertical circle is rigidly fixed to the telescope and rotates with the
telescope (Fig. 4.2).
Non-transit Theodolite
A theodolite is said to be a non-transit one when its telescope cannot be revolved
through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis. Such theodolites are
obsolete nowadays.
 Optical theodolite
An up-to-date optical theodolite is shown in Figure 3.3. Current surveying
instrument manufacturers have stopped developing and releasing optical
theodolites. However, some manufactures still make them available, mainly under
licenses.
Electronic theodolites
As electronic and microprocessor technology has progressed, it has become
possible to fulfill the coded limb image processing technique in the theodolite.
Such theodolites are called electronic theodolites. Nowadays, surveying instrument
manufacturers produce them. An electronic theodolite has much in common with
optical models (Figure 3.4). The telescope, tribrach, optical plummet, focusing and
fastening screws, and axes systems mainly remained unchanged. The measuring
microscope disappeared due to lack of need. The digital display console with
control keys appeared. Now there is a battery module at the right standard. The
accuracy of many models released ranges from 2″ to 20″. Two-second accuracy
theodolites have electronic monoaxial inclination compensators. Some of them
even have a dual-axis compensator and a laser plummet. Five-second accuracy
electronic theodolites usually include a monoaxial compensator. Some electronic
theodolites are equipped with a laser pointer. Those of this type are called laser
theodolites.
THE BASIC OPERATION OF A THEODOLITE
The main principle of every theodolite operation is a selected basic axial
configuration according to certain requirements.
Basic Axes of a Theodolite
Optical and electronic theodolites have an identical geometric and kinematical
scheme (Figure 3.5). This consists of vertical and horizontal rotation axes and the
collimation axis. The vertical axis is the instrument rotation axis. The horizontal
axis is the telescope rotation axis. The vertical rotation axis is provided with the
horizontal measuring circle. The horizontal rotation axis is provided with the
vertical measuring circle. These circles are often called limbs. The collimation axis
is the line that connects the center of the telescope objective with the reticle’s
crosshairs
DEFINITIONS
A number of operations are required while making the measurements with a
theodolite. Also, from the construction details it is evident that the instrument has a
number of axes having some specific relation between them. It becomes important
for the user to understand the operations, their use and their benefits to achieve
accuracy in the measurements. The following are the definitions of the terms that
will frequently be used in the measurement processes:
1. Transit: It is also called plunging or reversing. This is the operation of
revolving the telescope through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal
axis, thus making it point exactly in the opposite direction.
2. Face right: When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the right of the
observer, the position is called face right and the observation made is called
face right observation.
3. Face left: When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the left of the
observer, the position is called face left and the observation made is called
face left observation. By taking the mean of both face readings, the
collimation error is eliminated.
4. Swinging the telescope: Revolving the telescope in the horizontal plane,
about its vertical axis is called swinging. A right swing means clockwise
rotation of the telescope, whereas a left swing means anticlockwise rotation
of the telescope. By taking the mean of the right swing and the left swing
observations, the effects of error due to friction or backlash in the moving
parts is eliminated.
5. Horizontal axis: It is also called the trunnion axis or transverse axis; it is
the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane.
6. Vertical axis: It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a
horizontal plane.
7. Axis of the telescope: It is the line joining the optical centre of the object
glass to the centre of the eyepiece.
8. Line of sight: It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of cross-hairs
to the optical centre of the objective and its continuation.
9. Telescope normal; The telescope is said to be normal or direct when its
vertical circle is to the left of the observer and the bubble is up.
 10.Telescope inverted: The telescope is said to be inverted when its vertical
circle is to the right of the observer and the bubble is down.
11.Axis of the level tube: It is a line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the
level tube at its centre
12.Changing face: the operation of bringing the vertical circle from one side
of the observer to the other.
13.Least count of the Vernier: this is the difference between the value of the
smallest division of the main scale and that of the smallest division of the
Vernier scale.it is the smallest value that can be measured by a theodolite.
Theodolite adjustments
There are two adjustments carried out on a theodolite. These are:
a) Temporary adjustment
b) Permanent adjustment
Temporary adjustment
Before the instrument is ready to be used, three operations are carried out on it
first. These are:
i. Centering
ii. Leveling
iii. Focusing and removing the parallel
1. Setting up the Theodolite
It consists of centering the theodolite over the station and its approximate levelling
by tripod legs. This involves setting the theodolite exactly over the station mark or
on the station peg. It is done by the following steps:
1. The plumb bob is suspended from a small hook attached to the vertical axis
of the theodolite.
2. The instrument is placed over the station mark with the telescope at a
convenient height and with the tripod legs set well apart.
3. Two legs of the tripod are set firmly into the ground and the third leg is
moved radially to bring the plumb bob exactly over the station mark. Then
the third leg is also pushed into the ground.
4. If the instrument has a shifting head, the instrument is roughly centered over
the station mark and then by means of the shifting head, the plumb bob is
brought exactly over the station mark.
Approximate levelling: This implies levelling the instrument with the legs of the
tripod, i.e., by bringing the small circular bubble provided on the tribrach in the
centre. To achieve this, two of the tripod legs are pushed firmly into the ground
and the third leg of the tripod is moved to the right or to the left, i.e., in the
circumferential direction until the bubble is centered. This leg is then pushed into
the ground.
Notes 1. When the leg is moved radially, the plumb bob is shifted in the direction
of the leg without affecting the plate levels appreciably.
2. When the leg is moved circumferentially, the instrument tilts and the plate levels
are affected but the plumb bob position is not affected appreciably.
2. Levelling up
This means making the vertical axis truly vertical. This is done with the help of the
foot screws. The procedure is as follows;

3. Focusing
It consists of focusing the eyepiece and the objective.
Focusing the eyepiece: This operation is done to make the cross-hairs appear
clearly visible. The following steps are involved: 1.
 i. The telescope is directed towards the sky or a sheet of white paper held in
front of the objective.
ii. The eyepiece is moved in or out until the cross-hairs appear clear and
distinct.

Focusing the objective: This operation is done to bring the image of the
object in the plane of the cross-hairs. The following steps are involved:
i. The telescope is directed towards the object.
ii. The focusing screw is turned until the image appears clear and sharp.
PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS
There are a number of fundamental lines of theodolite, which have
interrelationship amongst each other. These are the vertical axis, the axis of plate
levels, the line of collimation, the horizontal axis, and the bubble line of altitude.
Over a period of time, due to mishandling during usage of the instrument, the
relationship among these lines may get altered and observations recorded will be
erroneous. This requires correcting the relationships between these fundamental
lines. Such adjustments are called permanent adjustments and are done from time
to time. The following adjustments are desirable:
i. The axis of the plate levels must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
ii. The line of collimation must be at right angles to the horizontal axis.
iii. The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
iv. The axis of the telescope level must be parallel to the line of collimation
Normally done by the manufacture.
INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
In order to achieve reliable measurement of the horizontal and vertical angles, one
must use an instrument that has been properly adjusted and adopt the correct field
procedure. In a properly adjusted instrument, the following geometrical
relationships should be maintained:
1. The plane of the horizontal circle should be normal to the vertical axis of
rotation.
2. The plane of the vertical circle should be normal to the horizontal transit
axis.
3. The vertical axis of rotation should pass through the point from which the
graduations of the horizontal circle radiate.
 4. The transit axis of rotation should pass through the point from which the
graduations of the vertical circle radiate.
5. The principal tangent to the plate bubble should be normal to the main axis
of rotation.
6. The line of sight should be normal to the transit axis.
7. The transit axis should be normal to the main axis of rotation.
8. When the telescope is horizontal, the vertical circle indices should be
horizontal and reading zero, and the principal tangent of the altitude bubble
should, at the same instance, be horizontal.
9. The main axis of rotation should meet the transit axis at the same point as
the line of sight meets this axis.
10.The line of sight should maintain the same position with change of focus (an
important fact when coplaning wires).
Items (1), (2), (3) and (4) above are virtually achieved by the instrument
manufacturer and no provision is made for their adjustment. Similarly, (9) and (10)
are dealt with, as accurately as possible, in the manufacturing process and in any
event are minimized by double face observations. Items (5), (6), (7) and (8) can, of
course, be achieved by the usual adjustment procedures carried out by the operator.
The procedure referred to above as ‘double face observation’ is fundamental to the
accurate measurement of angles. The mean result of a FL and FR observation,
called a double face observation, is free from the majority of instrumental errors
present in the theodolite. The main instrumental errors will now be dealt with in
more detail and will serve to emphasize the necessity for double face observation.
Vertical circle index error
In the measurement of a vertical angle it is important to note that the vertical circle
is attached to and rotates with the telescope. The vertical circle reading is relevant
to a fixed vertical circle index which is rendered horizontal by means of its
attached altitude bubble (Figure 5.3) or by automatic vertical circle indexing.
Vertical circle index error occurs when the index is not horizontal. Figure 5.21
shows the index inclined at e to the horizontal. The measured vertical angle on FL
is M, which requires a correction of +e, while on FR the required correction is −e.
The index error is thus eliminated by taking the mean of the FL and FR readings.
Vertical circle index test
Assume the instrument reads 0◦ on the vertical circle when the telescope is
horizontal and in FL position. Carefully level the instrument, make the altitude
bubble horizontal and sight a fine point of high elevation. Change face and repeat.
The two vertical circle readings should sum to 180◦, any difference being twice the
index error.