A lightweight introduction to Communicative English Grammar

CONTENTS

SECTION 1: THE TENSES INTRODUCTION HOW THE TENSES WORK 1.1 THE PRESENT TENSE 1.2 THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE 1.3 THE PAST TENSE 1.4 THE PAST PERFECT 1.5 TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE

1 1 2 3 7 10 13 15

SECTION 2: THE PASSIVE

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SECTION 3: MODAL (HELP) VERBS Modals 1 ABILITY: can, could, & be able to Modals 2 PERMISSION Modals 3 PROBABILITY Modals 4 NECESSITY (need) Modals 5 OBLIGATION (must, should, & have to) Modals 6 ADVICE & MILD OBLIGATION (should & ought to)

22 22 24 24 27 27 29

SECTION 4: THE GERUND

30

GRAMMAR EXERCISES - THE ANSWERS

33

GRAMMATICAL TERMS

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Introduction.
Most of the languages in Europe, and many outside Europe, have tense systems which are similar to each other in grammatical construction, meaning, and use, and often even in spelling and pronunciation. English tenses may also have the same grammatical construction and may also look and sound similar, but they often have very different uses and meanings, and this can cause problems and misunderstandings. One of the major differences between English and the other European languages is that English puts a great deal more information into the verb, and it is this extra information that may sometimes be difficult to understand. Simply translating, for example, the Dutch Tegenwoordige Tijd into the Present Tense, does not automatically give an accurate translation. For example, how would you translate Hij komt uit Delft? - is it He comes from Delft or Hes coming from Delft? Both of these are the Present Tense, but they dont mean the same thing. There are two forms of the present tense simply because they give different information about the present.

Learning to use the English tenses correctly is not difficult if you learn what the tenses actually mean, and in what ways they are different from the tenses in your own language.

Two things are very important to remember: Never translate the names of the English tenses into your own language. Translating the names of the tenses usually results in transferring the uses of the tenses as well, and automatically causes problems. Remember that what you want to translate is not the grammar, but the meaning. Translating the grammar often results in changing the meaning. Translating the meaning often makes it necessary to change the grammar!

HOW THE TENSES WORK

Look at this diagram of the English tenses -

finished past time

s s

unfinished present time

s
simple

Past Perfect
c before then and up to then

Past
c then

Present Perfect
c before now and up to now

Present
continuous

f u t u r e

now

English divides time into two main sections (a) past or finished time, which has no connection with the present; and (b) present or unfinished time

English has two tenses which are used to talk about present unfinished time - the Present and the Present Perfect; and it has two tenses which are used to talk about finished past time - the Past and the Past Perfect.

Each tense has two forms, Simple and Continuous (also called the Progressive), making a total of eight forms: Present Tenses: I do I'm (am) doing I've (have) done I've been doing I did I was doing I'd (had) done I'd been doing Present Simple Present Continuous Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous Past Perfect Simple Past Perfect Continuous

Past Tenses:

The Present Tense in English can be used to talk about the Present and the Future, but cannot be used to talk about the Past. (see Note 4 on page 4)

The function of the Present Perfect is to link Past and Present time, and it is a forward-looking tense, focussing on the Present. It is, as its name implies, a Present tense.

If we want to talk about times, events, or actions which began and ended in the past, and have no connection with the present, we must use one of the tenses under the heading `FINISHED PAST TIME.

1.1 THE PRESENT TENSE

SIMPLE PRESENT< CONTINUOUS

- used for PERMANENT STATES / REPEATED ACTIONS / FACTS - used for TEMPORARY STATES / SINGLE ACTIONS / DEVELOPING SITUATIONS

PRESENT
SIMPLE
PERMANENT STATES REPEATED ACTIONS FACTS, STATIC & UNCHANGING SITUATIONS

CONTINUOUS
TEMPORARY STATES SINGLE ACTIONS DEVELOPING / CHANGING SITUATIONS

So each form of the tense has three concepts, and the concepts of the simple form are exactly the opposite of the continuous form:

Examples: 1. He lives in Delft. (permanent state) 2. He plays tennis on Tuesday. (repeated action regular habit) 3. Water boils at 100 Celsius. (unchanging fact) 4. Hes living in Delft. (temporary state) 5. Hes playing tennis on Tuesday. (single action in the future) 6. The continents are slowly drifting apart. (developing situation)

Present Simple <

Pres. Continuous <

By adding a future time-phrase or time-word the Present Continuous can also be used to talk about the Future: Hes taking the dog for a walk on Sunday morning. Im flying to Rome tomorrow.

The Present Simple is used with all the `adverbs of frequency always, sometimes, usually, never, occasionally, etc., and with phrases like: every afternoon/day/week/month, times a day/year, etc. The Present Continuous is used with words and phrases like: now, at the moment, for the time being, next Wednesday etc.

There are some verbs which are not normally used in the continuous form. These are called stative verbs, and describe states, not actions, e.g.:
Senses: Emotions: Thought processes: Possession: Inherent properties/qualities Others: see, hear, notice, recognise like, dislike, love, hate, want, prefer, mind, care think, feel, know, believe, suppose, understand, realise, recognise, remember own, possess, belong to be, have, look (like), appear (to be), seem, sound, smell, taste, weigh, measure, hold, contain, consist of, fit, cost owe, matter, depend on, trust, deserve, apply

Those verbs in bold change their meaning or their function when they change from Simple to Continuous forms. The first three examples change their meaning, the second three change from Passive to Active.
have think see smell mind hold 'I have a very old car.'(own) and 'I'm having dinner with friends tomorrow evening.' (eating) 'I think it's going to rain.'(believe) and 'I'm thinking of buying a new car.' (considering) 'I see very well with both eyes.'(observe) and 'I'm seeing my bank manager tomorrow.' (meeting) The hoya smells strongest in the evenings.(gives off a perfume) and She walked round the garden, smelling all the flowers. (taking in the perfume) I dont mind staying at home. (object to) and My husbands at home, minding the baby. (looking after) This bottle holds about a litre. (thats its potential capacity) and Hes over there - hes the one holding the bottle. (he has it in his hand)

The Present Tense in English cannot always be used to refer to the same time-period as it does in other languages:
Ik ben hier al vijf jaar. Je suis ici depuis cinq ans. Ich bin hier schon seit fnf Jahren. Io vivo qui da cinque anni.

In all the languages above, it is not the tense but the words al, depuis, schon seit and da which actually tell the listener that the period of time began five years ago and comes up to the present. In English, however, we use for with periods of time, and the Present Tense cannot be used to talk about periods of time from the past up to the present, so the sentence
I am here for five years.

would probably mean either that the speaker has a five-year contract here, or that the speaker will be here for five years. There is no indication of how long the speaker has been here. The following short dialogue between A (who is Dutch) and B (a native English-speaker) shows the kind of misunderstanding which can arise from getting the tenses wrong:
A. B. A. B. How long are you here for? Im here for five years. So your Dutch must be very good now. No, I only arrived here two days ago.

The question How long are you here for? will normally be understood by a native English-speaker as being a question about the future, and will probably be answered with something like Another five years. (i.e. in the future, not the past).

Exercise Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form of the Present Tense: 1. 2. Oh dear, look. It ....................(rain) again. I ....................(work) on a very difficult project at the moment, much more difficult than the ones I normally ....................(work) on. He .................... (live) in Delft with his parents until his new house is finished. We ....................(have) a night out at the theatre tomorrow evening. Have you seen the news? Unemployment ....................(rise) again. But of course it always ....................(go) up at this time of year. At this point the river....................(alter) its course and....................(flow) northwards for about 150 km. I really ....................(hate) my job, so I....................(look) for another.

3. 4. 5.

6.

7.

Exercise Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form of the Present Tense. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. You cant talk to Tom now - he ....................(have) lunch. I wont go out now because it ....................(rain) and I havent got an umbrella. He usually ....................(speak) so quickly that I ....................(not understand) him. I cant give you the report now - John ....................(read) it. Jenny cant answer the phone - she ....................(talk) on the other line. He always ....................(come) to work by tram. But tomorrow he ....................(come) by car because the railways are on strike. Where .you ....................(go)? I ....................(go) to lunch. .you ....................(come)? Listen to that! Why the printer ....................(make) that terrible noise? It always ....................(do) that when you ....................(put) the wrong kind of paper in. What .. Peter ....................(do) at the moment? He ....................(have) a meeting with some people from the accounts department.

1.2 THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

SIMPLE PRESENT PERFECT< CONTINUOUS - focuses on the ACTION - focuses on the ACHIEVEMENTS

The Present Perfect ALWAYS has some connection with the Present - it is a Present tense. This connection is usually in one of three ways: ACTIONS BEGINNING IN THE PAST AND CONTINUING FOR A SPECIFIED LENGTH OF TIME UP TO THE PRESENT. e.g. Ive lived in Rotterdam for five years. (I still live there NOW) if no time period is mentioned, it becomes LIFE EXPERIENCES AT UNSPECIFIED TIMES IN A PERIOD OF TIME FROM THE PAST UP TO THE PRESENT. e.g. Ive been to Italy twice, but Ive never been to Spain. (I know what Italy is like, but not Spain)

ACTIONS COMPLETED IN THE PAST, BUT THE RESULT IS IN THE PRESENT, AND THE RESULT IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE ACTION e.g. Ive lost my keys. (I dont have my keys NOW)

In contrast to the Past Tense, which talks about periods of time which both began and ended in the past, the Present Perfect covers a period of time which began in the past but comes up to the present. Look at the following dialogues:

A : Have you ever been to Italy? B : Yes, several times. We went there last year, actually. A : Did you go to Rome? B : No, we went to Venice. A : Have you been to Rome? B : Yes of course we have.

A : I lived in Paris from 1983 to 1986. B : Oh really? Did you ever go to Versailles? A : No, I didnt, but I have been there.

The Present Perfect Tense ALWAYS gives you information about the present, in some way or another: Have you seen that man waiting in your office? - can only be used if the man is still there. Have you seen the new Bond film at the Odeon? - can only be used if the film is still at the Odeon now.

Unlike apparently similar tenses in many of the other European languages, the Present Perfect cannot be used to talk about the finished past: Ik heb hem gisteren gezien. Je lai vu hier. Ich habe ihn gestern gesehen. (Yo) le he visto ayer. Io l ho visto ieri. BUT I saw him yesterday.

FOCUS ON THE ACHIEVEMENTS: Ive written six letters this morning. (Present Perfect Simple) THE ACTION: Ive been writing letters all morning.(Present Perfect Continuous)

We can also say that the Present Perfect Continuous focuses on the process of the action rather than the completed action as a whole: Ive been standing here for an hour! Ive stood here long enough!

The Present Perfect Continuous can also give the feeling that the action is temporary rather than permanent: Shes been living in Delft for the last three months. Hes lived in Delft all his life.

The Present Perfect Continuous is also often used when a recent continuous action has just ended, but the results are still in the present: Your eyes are all red! Have you been crying? No, Ive been peeling onions.

The Present Perfect Simple can suggest that the action ends now, at or around the time of speaking: Ive worked for this company for 40 happy years. (and today Im retiring) Good heavens! Ive been working here for six years already! (and I shall continue to work here)

Look at this short dialogue: Your hands are filthy! What have you been doing? (focus on the action) Ive been servicing the car. (focus on the action) Have you finished it? (focus on the achievements) No, Ive checked the brakes and Ive adjusted the lights, but I havent changed the oil yet. (focus on the achievements) Exercise Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form - Present Perfect Simple, Present Perfect Continuous, or the correct form of the Present Tense. 1. How long ....................(you/be) here in Holland? I ....................(be) here for three years now. Do you know if Laura ....................(finish) that report yet? Well, I dont know if she .....................(complete) it, but I know she....................(work) on it since 9 oclock this morning. .....................(you/meet) the new accounts manager yet? No, I .................... . In fact, I ....................(not/even/see) him yet! Bill ....................(work) in our branch in London since last week. Oh really? .....................(he/help) to prepare the new report? No, he .......................(work) on an entirely new project thats due to be finished next

2.

3.

4.

year.

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1.3

THE PAST TENSE

SIMPLE PAST< CONTINUOUS - both forms are used for ACTIONS FINISHED IN THE PAST

Examples: I got up early, took a shower, had breakfast, and drove into town. (actions in sequence, each one finished before the next one begins) She looked up and saw me. (short completed actions in the past, virtually simultaneous) While I was standing outside in the rain, she was waiting warm mand comfortable in the bar, enjoying a drink (longer actions, going on at the same time) I was having breakfast when the telephone rang. (the action in the Past Continuous had not yet finished when the action in the Past Simple took place - this is called Interrupted Action)

Now look at these two pairs of sentences:~ 1a. 1b. 2a. 2b. I was walking away down the road when I saw John. When I saw John, I was walking away down the road. I walked away down the road when I saw John. When I saw John, I walked away down the road.

Other than a shift in emphasis, there is no difference between 1a and 1b, and there is no difference between 2a and 2b. In each pair of sentences, the sequence of events and the relationship between them remains the same. However, there is a major difference between 1 and 2: ~ I was walking away down the road when I saw John. (coincidence, neutral) I walked away down the road when I saw John. (cause & result) Notice also that although the syntax is the same, the sequence of events has changed ~ I was walking away (first action) down the road when I saw (second action) John. I walked away (second action) down the road when I saw (first action) John.

In many situations, both alternatives are valid, though of course the meaning changes ~ We were having dinner when John arrived. (coincidence) We had dinner when John arrived. (we were waiting for him) I was leaving the party when she walked in. (concidence) I left the party when she walked in. (I left because of her) But be careful ~ I was taking a shower when the phone rang is OK, but I took a shower when the phone rang suggests a bit of Pavlovian conditioning. More examples: What were you doing when the fire alarm went off? (up to that time) and What did you do when the fire alarm went off? (after the alarm went off)

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and these two: He was standing up when she entered the room. (coincidence) and He stood up when she entered the room. (because she entered the room)

You cannot use just one Past Continuous as a simple statement of a past completed action I was driving to Zoetermeer yesterday. (wrong - the sentence is unfinished) but I was driving to Zoetermeer yesterday when the car broke down. (correct)

You can use one, two, or more Past Continuous forms to set the scene for subsequent action It was pouring with rain. The wind was howling round the trees, and pieces of old newspaper and sodden leaves were flying through the air. Old Vic pulled his collar tighter around his neck, gritted his teeth and walked out into the storm ..... (note that the form changes to the Past Simple when the action begins)

There is one exception to the general rule of Past Continuous + Past Simple = neutral Interrupted Action Look at the following two examples: What did you do in town yesterday? (this is a simple request for information I knew you were going to town and I want to know what you did there) What were you doing in town yesterday? (either I think you shouldnt have been there, or, at best, I was very surprised to see you there. There will very often be additional stress on the word you) This works only with the question What were you doing + place.

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Exercise Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Continuous.

1.

When I .........................(arrive) the meeting had already started and the chairman .........................(make) a speech.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

I ....................(cook) the dinner when the lights .........................(go) out. I had to finish I didnt want to talk to Bert, so when he .........................(enter) the room I She ....................(talk) on the phone when I .........................(walk) into her office. He ....................(drive) along the A44 when the accident .........................(occur). I .........................(suddenly / realise) that I ....................(travel) in the wrong direction.

in the dark.

....................(leave).

She ....................(look) out of the window when suddenly she .........................(see) someone she knew. I .........................(look) through my desk the other day and I ....................(find) a copy you wanted. of the report

9. 10.

The last time I .........................(see) it, it ....................(lie) on Johns desk. The meeting dragged on and on. They .........................(still / talk) when I ....................(leave).

Exercise Circle the correct form of the verb in the following sentences:

1. 2. 3.

I lived / have lived / am living in Zoetermeer since 1987. Mr Wilson isnt here at the moment, he went / has gone to a conference in Brussels. Did you meet / Have you met the Minister of Agriculture when he was / has been here last week?

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Did you see / Have you seen the new report yet? Yes, I saw / have seen a copy of it last Monday. I went / have been to London last week. Oh really? Did you have / Have you had a good time while you were / have been there? Yes, I did / have. I went / have been to a show in the West End, and I bought / have bought a lot of software for my computer.

9. 10.

Did you finish / Have you finished reading the newsletter yet? Yes, I finished / have finished it yesterday and then I passed / have passed it on to John.

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1.4 THE PAST PERFECT

SIMPLE PAST PERFECT< CONTINUOUS

used for > ACTIONS WHICH HAPPENED BEFORE THE PAST

Look at the following examples: I got up1 early, took2 the dog for a walk, had3 breakfast, drove4 into town, walked5 to the office, and worked6 until 12.30. I left7 the office and went8 back to my car. It had gone! I had parked in a no-parking zone, and the police had towed it away. So I went9 to the police station, paid10 my fine, and got11 my car back. (in this example, all the numbered actions appear in the sequence in which they actually happened, but the actions in the Past Perfect are out of sequence - they happened before the point where they appear in the story)

Prior to 1987, the company had made no attempt to break into the international market. Sales had been poor, and the company had been declining steadily. Then, in January 1987, a new Managing Director was appointed. Under his direction, branches were opened in Paris, Rome, and Dusseldorf, a new advertising campaign was launched, and sales began to improve. (in this example, the main focus of the story is on January 1987. This is when the story really begins. Everything which comes before that point is simply for background information, and is given in the Past Perfect)

As with the Present Perfect, the Continuous and Simple forms can be used to focus on the action and the achievements respectively: I had been living in London for several years when I met the girl who was to become my wife. Before I met her, I had lived in a succession of tiny bed-sitters, but my lifestyle was soon to change. At eight-fifteen, I decided that I had waited long enough. I called a taxi and left.

The relationship between the Past Perfect and the Past Tense is the same as the relationship between the Present Perfect and the Present Tense: Where have you been? Ive been waiting here for over an hour! (up to now) When he finally arrived, I had been waiting for over an hour. (up to the past)

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Exercise In the following sentences you will need the Past Simple, the Past Continuous, and the Past Perfect. 1. 2. 3. 4. Leo....................(still work) on the report when we....................(go) home. I....................(walk) to my car the other day when I saw that someone ....................(try) to open the door. I....................(shout) at him and he....................(run) away. He....................(run) across the main road when the lorry....................(knock) him down. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. It....................(start) to rain while I....................(cycle) home. I....................(decide) to wait until the rain stopped, so I....................(get) off my bike and....................(go) into a bar. I....................(sit) at the bar having a quiet beer when Randall....................(walk) in. We....................(talk) for a few minutes, and then I....................(look) out of the window and....................(see) that the rain....................(stop). I....................(finish) my drink, .........................(put) on my coat and I....................(walk) out of the bar when the barman....................(call) me back. I....................(forget) to pay for my beer!

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1.5

TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE

will/shall be + going to + verb infinitive Present Continuous + future time (explicit/implicit)

WILL/SHALL. There is no real difference in meaning between will and shall*. I and we normally use shall, and you, he, she, it & they normally use will. In spoken English, however, they are both pronounced ll, and the full forms of shall & will are used only in the question form and in the short answer form : Ill do it tomorrow, when I have time! (short form) but Shall I give you a hand with that? (long form) Will you be at the meeting tomorrow? - Yes, I will. (long form) *shall & will are different in legal English, where shall may be used for I, you, he, she, it, we & they, The Company, etc., and is binding. USES OF WILL & SHALL: Shall & will are used to talk about: 1. Future Facts 2. Prediction He will be forty-two next birthday Youll miss me when Im gone.

Note: in these two uses, the speaker has NO CONTROL over the situation. 3. Spontaneous decisions, offers, etc.: ordinary decisions promises offers suggestions threats What a nice day! I think Ill go for a walk. OK! I promise Ill cut the grass at the weekend. Ill give you a lift to the airport, if you like. Shall I help you? Shall we go out for dinner tonight? Stop that immediately, or Ill call the police!

Note that will & shall are NOT used to talk about your plans or intentions. Note also that the past form of both will and shall is would. The form should is now normally used for advice and mild obligation (see page 26)

BE + GOING TO + VERB INFINITIVE This form has two uses: 1. to talk about plans and intentions Were going to go somewhere different for our holidays this year. Hes going to ask for a raise. When were in London, were going to try and get tickets for Cats.

[when we use going to, our plans or intentions are just ideas - we havent actually made any fixed arrangements yet - see PRESENT CONTINUOUS + FUTURE TIME on the following page] 2. to talk about the future as a logical outcome of a present situation I think its going to rain. (There are clouds in the sky NOW) Shes going to have a baby. (shes pregnant)

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PRESENT CONTINUOUS + FUTURE TIME This is the form we use to talk about fixed arrangements: Were flying to Rome on Wednesday. (Weve already got the tickets) (Ive got an appointment)

Im seeing the bank manager tomorrow.

It is sometimes possible to use any one of these forms about the same situation - it depends how far advanced the plans are: I think Ill go to France for my holidays this year. (decision made now, at the time of speaking) (plan or intention, but only in my head - I havent made any arrangements yet)

Im going to go to France this summer.

Im going to the south of France for two weeks in June. (Ive made all the bookings its now a fixed arrangement) This time next week Ill be in the south of France. (future fact)

These are the three most common ways of talking about the future, but there are several other ways.

We can use the Present Simple to talk about timetables, itineraries or schedules: Im taking the train to Paris on Saturday. It leaves Rotterdam at 08.04 and arrives in Paris at 14.30. (fixed arrangement - as in 3 above) (timetable)

Heres your programme for your trip to Germany next week. On Monday at 08.30 you fly to Frankfurt. At 11.00 you drive to Meier AG for a meeting with Herr Grber. You have lunch with him, and at 15.30 you meet Herr Schmidt and take a tour of the factory........

We can also use the phrase `be to + infinitive: President Putin is to meet several European heads of state in Brussels next week. They are to discuss the future of gas supplies from Russia. This is a formal way of announcing future fixed arrangements. It is often heard on the news.

We can make the future less certain my introducing words like might or may: They may not arrive on time - that train is often late. We might go for a walk - it depends on the weather.

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We can also introduce other ideas about the future with expressions like: We hope to move to another house soon. Were hoping to move to another house soon. and I intend to ask for a salary increase in the near future. Im intending to ask for a rise soon. (formal) (informal) (formal) (informal)

The FUTURE IN THE PAST (was going to do sthing) We were going to take the children to the Efteling last weekend, but the weather was awful, so we didnt go. I was going to go to Amsterdam today, but I havent got time. They were going to address the conference in Brussels next week, but theres an important meeting here, so they wont be able to go. Note that in all these examples, the plan or arrangement was cancelled for some reason.

The PAST IN THE FUTURE (will have done sthing) In another six months I will have worked here for ten years. (now, its only 9 years) When can I have that report? - Ill have finished it by tomorrow afternoon. (Ill finish it in the morning, but I dont know exactly when - but by tomorrow afternoon, the finishing will be in the past)

The FUTURE CONTINUOUS (will be doing sthing) Used to express the idea that at some specific point in the future, you will be in the middle of doing something.

I think ten oclocks too early to phone him - hell still be sorting through his mail then. Better leave it till eleven. This time next week Ill be lying on a beach in Aruba, sipping ice-cold beer.

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Exercise Choose the most appropriate form of the future in the following conversation: I hear you ....................(move) to France! (fixed arrangement) Yes, thats right. Weve bought a little farm and we ....................(raise) chickens. (plan) Thatll be fun! I hope so. It ....................(certainly be) different. (prediction) Have you got a job there? No, I ....................(look) round for something when I get there. (plan) Im sure you ....................(find) something. When ....................(leave)? (prediction & fixed arrangement) At the end of this month - we ....................(be) there in a couple of weeks. (future fact) Oh, so it ....................(be) long now. I....................(be) sorry to see you go. Anne and I ....................(miss) you. (future fact, prediction, prediction) Well, we ....................(be) so far away - and dont forget you ....................(be able to) come and stay with us during the holidays. (future fact, future fact) Oh good! Im sure the kids ....................(enjoy) that! (prediction)

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The PASSIVE
Study this sentence:

In this first sentence, we have the normal English sentence pattern of Subject/Verb/Object. Besides being the Subject, we can also call the manager the Agent, because in this sentence it is the manager who does something (he fills out the financial returns...). However, perhaps we want to talk about the financial returns, and not the manager - perhaps we dont even know who fills out the returns. In that case, we want to move the financial returns from their position of Object, and make them now the Subject of the sentence. To do that, we need the Passive:

FORM: The Passive is formed like this: be + past participle (3rd form of the verb) The Passive is not a tense (tenses are made by have + past participle) but it can be used in the Future, the Present, the Present Perfect, the Past, or the Past Perfect by changing the tense of the verb be: The building will be completed in July next year. (Future) The building is being completed at the moment. (Present) The building has just been completed. (Present Perfect) The building was completed last year. (Past) The building had been completed for only a (Past Perfect) month when it burned down. Notice that whatever tense we are using, the Past Participle (here, completed) doesnt change. USES: We use the Passive 1. when the agent is less important than the thing itself: Paper was invented by the Chinese in the 1st century AD. (were talking about paper, not the Chinese) 2. when the agent is obvious: He was arrested yesterday. (by the police, of course) 3. when we dont know who the agent is, or when the agent is not important: This house was built in the early fifties. (but I have no idea who built it, and its not important anyway) 4. when we want to cover up the identity of the agent: It has been suggested that Mr Jones is overdue for retirement. (actually, I suggested it, but Im not going to admit that)

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Exercise Make these sentences Passive, and leave out the agent if you think it isnt necessary. 1. People steal things from supermarkets every day; someone stole a case of cognac from my local supermarket last week. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... Normally some men collect the rubbish on Thursday, but this week they will collect it on Wednesday. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... Cleaners clean these offices in the evening after we leave; they clean the offices upstairs early in the morning. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... Someone from the post department delivers letters to all the offices first thing in the mornings. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... We kill and injure many people on the roads every day. Isnt it time we did something about it? ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... The printer deals with printing tasks in sequence; it will print your letter in about fifteen minutes. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... They will build a new office block on this site, but first they have to demolish all these old buildings. ................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................... I didnt come to work by car today because they are giving the car its annual service at my local garage. ................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

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Exercise Mixed Tenses. Put the verb in brackets into the appropriate tense and the appropriate form - question, passive, active, etc.: May I .........................(speak) to Mr van Egmont please? Yes, just a moment, he....................(talk) to someone in the office next door, but I....................(go) and....................(get) him for you. .you....................(hang on) for a moment? Yes, of course. Hey Cor, there....................(be) someone on the telephone next door and he....................(want) to speak to you. you....................(take) it there or .. I ....................(transfer) it to this office? I....................(take) it here. OK. I....................(ask) the switchboard to transfer him. Hello, Cor van Egmont....................(speak). Hello, this....................(be) Jim Sutton from the Ministry of Transport in London. you....................(remember) we .........................(meet) at the conference in Paris last month? Yes, I remember! How are you? Fine thanks! Look Cor, I....................(be) in The Hague for a few days next week - I....................(have) a few appointments there, but I....................(have) a lot of free time as well. Could we....................(arrange) to get together for lunch or dinner one day? Good idea! Let me....................(get) my diary so I can....................(check) my appointments. Right, I .........................(have) a meeting on Tuesday morning in Amsterdam, and in the afternoon I .........................(see) the Chief of the Traffic Police in Rotterdam. I....................(be) free on Wednesday. I....................(meet) you in The Hotel des Indes for lunch at about 1 oclock? That sounds fine. By the way Cor, you .........................(read) the Jorritsma Report yet? It....................(publish) last week, I believe. No, I .........................(read) it yet. We .........................(sent) a copy of it when it....................(released), but I .........................(work) on a very urgent project when it .........................(arrive), and I....................(be) too busy to read it. But I .........................(finish) the project yesterday, so perhaps I....................(have) time to read it sometime in the next few days. I hope you .........................(have) time. Then we .........................(be able to) discuss it next week. I .........................(read) it already but there were one or two points I .........................(not understand). Perhaps you .........................(be able to) clear them up for me next week. OK, I .........................(do) my best. See you next Wednesday. Right. See you then. Bye. Bye.

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MODAL (HELP) VERBS

can, could, may, might, must, will, would, shall, should, ought, and need All of these help verbs have certain things in common: They introduce the ideas rather than actions ~ ability (vermogen), permission (toestemming), probability (waarschijnlijkheid), necessity (noodzakelijkheid), obligation (verplichting), and the future (toekomst). They have no -s on the third person singular (he works, she lives, etc., but he could work, she will live). They make questions by inversion, not by using do, does, or did (He could move to Rotterdam - Could he move .......? She will be married in June. Will she be married ....?) They make negatives simply by adding not or nt (wont, cant, mustnt, etc)

1. ABILITY: can, could, & be able to

I can swim Hanneke could ride a bicycle when she was four. Can John speak French? Yes, he can. If we go to town, Ill be able to do some shopping. We use can, could, and be able to to talk about general ability and opportunity - the ability to do something any time you want to.

The boat capsized and we fell into the water, but we could all swim, so we were able to swim ashore.

we use was/were able to to talk about ability or opportunity PLUS ACTION on one specific occasion in the past.

I was so angry I could have hit him! I could have gone abroad again this year, but I decided to have a holiday here in Holland instead.

we use could have + Past Participle when we had the ability to do something but didnt do it.

I could speak French quite well when I was young. I could skate when I was five.

we use could to talk about general ability in the past.

We could see a man standing on the roof. I can hear the traffic on the main road from my living room.

we use can and could with the verbs of perception: see, hear, feel, taste, & smell.

I couldnt do your job - I dont have enough patience.

we use could to talk about ability in hypothetical situations.

Can has only two forms, can and could. It has no infinitive, and no participles (to can, canning, Ive could do not exist) and it cannot be used with other help verbs (will can, should can, must can, etc. do not exist either). Instead, we use the verb be able to.

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Exercise Some of the following sentences are correct, and some are wrong. Re-write those which are wrong. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Id like to be able to stay here. We could go to Scheveningen last Sunday, but we decided that there would be too much traffic, so we stayed at home. Youll be able to walk again soon. Ive always been able to get on well with him. He bought a new car yesterday, and he could get 10% off the price. Can you drive? Im able to see the beach from my window. You can borrow my car if you want to. Id like to can help you, but Im in an awful hurry - sorry! After six hours climbing, they could reach the top of the mountain. Anybody can learn to speak another language. I talked to her for a long time, and in the end I could calm her down. Ive could swim since I was five years old. She was very beautiful when she was young - she could marry anyone she chose. I dont know how he has been able to manage since he lost his job. She must can do that by herself - it isnt a difficult job.

........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................... ................................................................................ ........................................

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2. PERMISSION
Look at the following requests for permission. They are (generally speaking) in order of politeness/formality. 1 Can I use your phone? 2 Could I use your phone? 3 May I use your phone? 4 Might I use your phone? 5 Is it all right if I use your phone? 6 Do you think I could use your phone? 7 I wonder if I might use your phone? In requests for permission: 1 Can and could are widely used. Could is more polite than can, and a request can be made even more tactful or formal by lengthening it: Could I possibly .... I wonder if I could .... I wonder if I could possibly .... 2 May is more polite still and might sounds very formal. In replies to requests for permission: 1 Positive replies - can is the most usual answer although may can be used in a more formal context. Might cannot be used. 2 Negative replies - cant is the most usual form. May not is also possible in answer to a question with may. Past permission is usually expressed by could or couldnt.

3. PROBABILITY
Look at the following ways of expressing probability. Again, they are (generally) in order, beginning with the most certain and ending with the least certain. 1 Thatll be the postman now 2 That must be the postman now. 3 That ought to be the postman now. 4 That may be the postman now 5 That could be the postman now. 6 That might be the postman now. Will/wont - express a confident assumption about the present: e.g. Youll be exhausted after all that gardening! Come and sit down. He wont be working at the moment. Give him a ring. or, less frequently, about the past: e.g. Hell have received my letter last week. Must - expresses a similarly confident conclusion. The negative is cant (not mustnt). e.g. You must have been extremely proud of your son. He cant possibly be serious! You cant have been listening to a word Ive said!

May, might and could suggest possibility rather than probability. May is the strongest possibility of the three. Past possibility is expressed by the modal + present perfect form:

25

e.g. You {

might may could

} have left your wallet on the bus

NB: could have and might have are also used to express a reproach: (verwijt) e.g. Ive been waiting here all evening. You { could might have phoned me!

Modal verbs normally refer to the Present or the Future. However, all the modal verbs (except shall) can be used together with the present perfect form to talk about the past. This structure has a special meaning: it is used for speculating (speculeren) or imagining (zich voorstellen/ verbeelden) Shes two hours late - what can have happened? You could have told me you were coming. I think I may have upset Aunt Mary. Ive bought six bottles of wine - that ought to be enough for the weekend. You were crazy to ski down there - you might have killed yourself. George is behaving very strangely. I think he must have been drinking. I met her soon after the war. - Oh, yes. That will have been around March 1946, I suppose. The potatoes would have been better with a bit more salt. The plants dead. Maybe I should have given it more water. We ought to have got here earlier: the trains packed. You neednt have brought wine - weve got plenty.

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Exercise Rewrite the following sentences, replacing the words in italics with the correct form of one of the modal verbs from the sections on Permission or Probability. Make any changes necessary, but try to keep to the meaning of the original sentence. 1 2 3 4 You can try phoning but its possible that the car has been sold by now. (begin: The car... He asked if he would be allowed to write in ball-point pen during the exam. If youve been out of the country, you obviously havent heard about the robbery. I just dont believe that the line has been engaged all this time. Maybe theres a fault on it. (begin: The line .... 5 Dont start worrying. Its possible that he took a later plane. 6 Where would there be a chance of finding a flat to rent? 7 Im s orry to trouble you, but I was wondering if there was any possibility of my using your phone for a moment. My cars broken down. 8 Ive forgotten to return the key of the safe. Im sure they have been looking everywhere for it. 9 Its possible that you wont even have to show a pass to get in. 10 Shes unlikely to have left without warning anyone. ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................ ................................................................................................................................................

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4. NECESSITY (need)
Need is expressed by the semi-modal need to do sthing: Children need to feel that they are important to someone

In its negative and question forms it can be treated as an ordinary modal; in other words, the negative can be made simply by adding not or nt: You neednt do the test if you dont want to. and the question form can be made by inversion: Need you make so much noise? (when need is used as a modal, it is not followed by to in the negative and question forms)

However, it is also possible to treat need as an ordinary verb and use the auxiliary do to form questions and negatives: You dont need to do the test if you dont want to. and Do you really need to make so much noise? (note that it would be difficult to fit the word really into the sentence Need you make .....)

Be careful when using need in the past - didnt need to do is different from neednt have done We use didnt need to (like didnt have to) to say that an action was unnecessary. This was known at the time of the action. I didnt need to go, so I didnt go. (I knew it wasnt necessary, so I didnt go) I didnt need to go, but I went anyway. (I knew it wasnt necessary, but I chose to go)

When we use needt have we show that it was not known at the time that the action was unnecessary, and so the action was actually done I neednt have gone (= I went, because I didnt know at the time that it was unnecessary)

5. OBLIGATION (must, should, & have to)

Obligation (verplichting) is expressed by must & should and the Phrasal Verb have to.

must usually expresses the authority of the speaker: Youre going to Moscow? You must go and see the Kremlin! (speakers authority) I must go and get my hair cut this week. (speakers decision)

have to expresses an external, more formal authority: Youll have to get a visa if you want to go to China. (Chinese government regulations) If you join the army youll have to get your hair cut. (Army regulations)

There is only one form of must, and it can only be used to talk about the Present and the Future (usually the near future); but have to can be used in all the tenses:

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The Continuous forms are also used: was having to (Past Continuous) am/are/is having to (Present Continuous) and, less commonly, the Perfect and Future Continuous Forms: have/has been having to (Present Perfect Continuous) had been having to (Past Perfect Continuous) will be having to (Future Continuous) There is a difference in meaning when must and have to are used in the negative form: You mustnt smoke in here. (its not allowed) You dont have to wear a suit in the office. (its allowed, but its not necessary) must & mustnt are also used to mean that it is important that something is or isnt done: The tragedy of Cambodia must not be allowed to happen again. Schools must teach children the difference between right and wrong. should expresses a milder obligation: You really should try to get to work on time. Note that should is NOT the Past Tense of shall, and in fact is used to talk about obligation or advice in the future. had to do sthing vs should have done sthing I had to do it means that you had an obligation to do something in the past, and that you actually did it i.e. I had to go to the police station yesterday. means that you had an obligation to go to the police station, and you actually went there.

But I should have done it. means that you had an obligation to do something in the past, but you didnt do it I should have gone to the police station yesterday. means that you didnt go.

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must have done sthing The expression must have done as in theyre late - they must have taken a wrong turning. does NOT indicate obligation, but expresses a confident certainty (see must on page 22)

6. ADVICE & MILD OBLIGATION (should & ought to)

Both should and ought to are used to give advice. I dont like the sound of that cough - you really ought to give up smoking. Youre putting on weight - you should get more exercise. To make the question and negative forms, shouldnt is more often used than oughtnt (to) You shouldnt (oughtnt) take the A20, its always busy in the rush-hours. Shouldn't you be at work now? To form the past, should have done and ought (to) have done are used: You should have taken the A10, theres less traffic on it. Ought to is often used to indicate an external (or sometimes moral) obligation, whereas should, (like must) indicates a more subjective feeling: We ought to visit grandma, but I dont think well have time. (moral obligation) Should and ought to are also used to indicate strong probability: How much milk is there? Two litres. Oh, that ought to be enough. There should be a post office around here somewhere.

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The Gerund
The gerund can be seen as a verb which is being used as a noun. For this purpose, English uses the `ing-form: Swimming is a healthy sport. (here, the verb is is, and swimming is the subject of the sentence, and therefore a noun) Many languages which have no `ing-form use the infinitive form: Zwemmen is een gezonde sport. Plywanie dobrze wplywa na zdrowie. Gerunds can ~ stand on their own as nouns: follow certain verbs: follow prepositions:

Campings fine if the weather is good. I really enjoy camping. I like the idea of camping.

Exercise Choose the correct preposition from the list below to complete the sentences: before without after by of

1 They decided to warm up .................... cycling on. 2 She drove on for another 25 km .................... stopping for a rest. 3 .................... having a hurried breakfast, we were back on the road by 8 oclock. 4 He suddenly became aware .................... someone standing in the corner. 5 He drove round the corner .................... even slowing down. The gerund can be used after all prepositions, not just those mentioned above.

Exercise Complete the following sentences by adding the correct preposition and the gerund form of a suitable verb (some suitable prepositions are given below) 1 I left home as soon as I was capable .................... enough money to live on. 2 I would never use your computer .................... your permission first. 3 I explained that the information was necessary .................... a residence permit. 4 Ill have to look up the name in the files - Im terribly bad .................... names. 5 He insisted .................... them a lift to the station. 6 You may have some difficulty .................... a taxi at the airport. at for from in of on with without

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The gerund also follows to when to is part of a verb: look forward to object to prefer .... to .... be used to

Exercise Complete the sentence below with a suitable gerund form: 1 2 3 4 Theres a small entrance fee and so far no-one has objected to .................... Now that weve found a flat, Im really looking forward to .................... Everything will be strange at first, but youll soon get used to .................... in Delft. Id prefer .................... a flat in Delft to .................... in Rotterdam. The gerund is also used after certain verbs: Couldnt you delay sending the letter for a couple of days? The following are the most common verbs which are followed by a gerund: admit enjoy avoid give up delay dislike keep finish mind miss involve put off mention risk suggest practise imagine resist cant stand appreciate deny consider postpone cant help

Exercise Match the two halves of the sentences below so that they make sense: a b c d e f g He had been considering The smell of the soup put me off He looked so funny that I couldnt help Youd better take a map, otherwise you risk Before we went on holiday we practised As everyone was away we postponed Its really stuffy in here - would you mind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 meeting again till September. getting completely lost. starting his own company. wanting to taste it. opening the window. laughing out loud. saying a few phrases in Greek.

Exercise Complete the following sentences with suitable gerunds: 1 2 3 4 If you want to save money, youd better give up .................... I dont mind most of the housework but I cant stand .................... The strawberries looked so delicious that I couldnt resist .................... Unless Brazil has a reciprocal tax arrangement with Holland, you wont be able to avoid .................... 5 Can I have the report when youve finished .................... 6 He said he was going to the tax office, so I suggested .................... 7 My job in the personnel department involves .................... 8 His apartment wasnt ready, so I asked him if hed mind .................... 9 Getting a residence permit isnt difficult, but it does involve .................... 10 This offer must be accepted by the end of the month. Please do not delay ....................

Gerunds are always used after the following expressions: Its no use trying to phone his office .... Its no good wasting time on that .... The situation isnt worth worrying about .....

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Gerunds can be used like this after possessives: I appreciated his meeting me at the station Did she mention Johns telephoning her yesterday? But this is rather formal English, and informal English would say: I appreciated him meeting me at the station. Did she mention John telephoning her yesterday?

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Exercise on page 5 Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form of the Present Tense: 1. Oh dear, look. It is raining again. 2. I am working on a very difficult project at the moment, much more difficult that the work on. 3. Hes living in Delft with his parents until his new house is finished. 4. We are having a night out at the theatre tomorrow evening. 5. Have you seen the news? Unemployment is rising again. But of course it always goes of year. 6. At this point the river alters its course and flows northwards for about 150 km. 7. I really hate my job, so I am looking for another.

ones I normally

up at this time

Exercise on page 5 Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form of the Present Tense. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. You cant talk to Tom now - he is having lunch. I wont go out now because its raining and I havent got an umbrella. He usually speaks so quickly that I dont understand him. I cant give you the report now - John is reading it. Jennie cant answer the phone - shes talking on the other line. He always comes to work by tram. But tomorrow hes coming by car because the railways are on strike. Where are you going? Im going to lunch - are you coming? Listen to that! Why is the printer making that terrible noise? It always does that when you put the wrong kind of paper in. What is Peter doing at the moment? Hes having a meeting with some people from the accounts department.

Exercise on page 8 Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form. 1. How long have you been here in Holland? Ive been here for three years now. Do you know if Laura has finished that report yet? Well, I dont know if she has completed it, but I know she has been working (work) on it since 9 oclock this morning. Last year, our exports topped Hfl 25 million, and I see from the company report that so far this year we seem to have done/be doing even better. Have you met the new accounts manager yet? No, I havent. In fact, I havent even seen him yet! Bill has been working in our branch in London since last week. Oh really? Has he been helping to prepare the new report? No, he hasnt, he has been working on a new project that is due to be finished next

2.

3.

4.

5.

year.

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Exercise on page 11 Put the verbs in brackets into the Simple Past or the Past Continuous. 1. When I arrived the meeting had already started and the chairman was making a speech. 2. I was cooking the dinner when the lights went out. I had to finish in the dark. 3. I didnt want to talk to Eric, so when he entered the room I left . 4. She was talking on the phone when I walked into her office. 5. He was driving along the A44 when the accident occurred. 6. I suddenly realised that I was travelling in the wrong direction. 7. She was looking out of the window when suddenly she saw someone she knew. 8. I was looking through my desk the other day and I found a copy of the report you wanted. 9. The last time I saw it, it was lying on Johns desk. 10. The meeting dragged on and on. They were still talking when I left . Exercise on page 11 Choose the correct form of the verb in the following sentences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I have lived in Zoetermeer since 1987. Mr Wilson isnt here at the moment, he has gone to a conference in Brussels. Did you meet the Minister of Agriculture when he was here last week? Have you seen the new report yet? Yes, I saw a copy of it at the Ministry last Monday. I went to London last week. Oh really? Did you have a good time while you were there? Yes, I did. I went to a show in the West End, and I bought a lot of software for my computer. Have you finished reading the newsletter yet? Yes, I finished it yesterday and then I passed it on to John.

Exercise on page 13 In the following sentences you will need the Past Simple, the Past Continuous, and the Past Perfect. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Leo was still working on the report when we went home. I was walking to my car the other day when I saw that someone was trying to open the door. I shouted at him and he ran away. He was running across the main road when the lorry knocked him down. It started to rain while I was cycling home. I decided to wait until the rain stopped, so I got off my bike and went into a bar. I was sitting at the bar having a quiet beer when Frank walked in. We talked for a few minutes, and then I looked out of the window and saw that the rain had stopped. I finished my drink, put on my coat and I was walking out of the bar when the barman called me back. I had forgotten to pay for my beer!

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Exercise on page 17 Choose the most appropriate form of the future in the following conversation: I hear youre moving to France! Yes, thats right. Were going to buy a little farm and raise chickens. Thatll be fun! I hope so. Itll certainly be different. Have you got a job there? No, Im going to look round for something when I get there. Im sure youll find something. When are you leaving? At the end of this month - well be there in a couple of weeks. Oh, so it wont be long now. Ill be sorry to see you go. Anne & I will miss you. Well, we wont be so far away - and dont forget youll be able to come and stay with holidays. Oh good! Im sure the kids will enjoy that! Exercise on page 19 Make these sentences Passive, and leave out the agent if you think it isnt necessary. 1. People steal things from supermarkets every day; someone stole a case of cognac from my local supermarket last week. Things are stolen ...............a case of cognac was stolen ...... Normally some men collect the rubbish on Thursday, but this week they will collect it on Wednesday. Normally the rubbish is collected .................. it will be collected ...... Cleaners clean these offices in the evening after we leave; they clean the offices upstairs early in the morning. These offices are cleaned ............... the offices upstairs are cleaned ...... Someone from the post department delivers letters to all the offices first thing in the mornings The letters are delivered ...... We kill and injure many people on the roads every day. Isnt it time we did something about it? Many people are killed and injured ................... something was done about it? ...... The printer deals with printing tasks in sequence; it will print your letter in about fifteen minutes. .......your letter will be printed ...... They will build a new office block on this site, but first they have to demolish all these old buildings. A new office block will be built .................. these old buildings will have to be demolished.. I didnt come to work by car today because they are giving the car its annual service at my local garage. .......because the car is being given its annual service .....

us during the

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

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Exercise on page 20 Mixed Tenses. Put the verb in brackets into the appropriate tense and the appropriate form - question, passive, active, etc.: May I speak to Mr van Egmont please? Yes, just a moment, he is talking to someone in the office next door, but Ill go and get him for you. Would you/can you hang on for a moment? Yes, of course. Hey Cor, there is someone on the telephone next door and he wants to speak to you. Will you take it there or shall I transfer it to this office? Ill take it here. OK. Ill ask the switchboard to transfer him. Hello, Cor van Egmont speaking. Hello, this is Jim Sutton from the Ministry of Transport in London. Do you remember we met at the conference in Paris last month? Yes, I remember! How are you? Fine thanks! Look Cor, Ill be in The Hague for a few days next week - I have a few appointments there, but I have/will have a lot of free time as well. Could we arrange to get together for lunch or dinner one day? Good idea! Let me get my diary so I can check my appointments. Right, I have a meeting on Tuesday morning in Amsterdam, and in the afternoon Im seeing the Chief of the Traffic Police in Rotterdam. Im free on Wednesday. Shall I meet you in The Hotel des Indes for lunch at about 1 oclock? That sounds fine. By the way Cor, have you read the Jorritsma Report yet? It was published last week, I believe. No, I havent read it yet. We were sent a copy of it when it was released, but I was working on a very urgent project when it arrived, and I was too busy to read it. But I finished the project yesterday, so perhaps I will have time to read it sometime in the next few days. I hope you will have time. Then we will be able to discuss it next week. I have read it already but there were one or two points I didnt understand. Perhaps you will be able to clear them up for me next week. OK, Ill do my best. See you next Wednesday. Right. See you then. Bye Bye.

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Exercise on page 22 Some of the following sentences are correct, and some are wrong. Re-write those which are wrong. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Id like to be able to stay here. We could go to Scheveningen last Sunday, but we decided that there would be too much traffic, so we stayed at home. X Youll be able to walk again soon. Ive always been able to get on well with him. He bought a new car yesterday, and he could get 10% off the price. X Can you drive? Im able to see the beach from my window. X You can borrow my car if you want to. Id like to can help you, but Im in an awful hurry - sorry! X After six hours climbing, they could reach the top of the mountain. X Anybody can learn to speak another language. I talked to her for a long time, and in the end I could calm her down. X Ive could swim since I was five years old. X She was very beautiful when she was young - she could marry anyone she chose. X I dont know how he has been able to manage since he lost his job. She must can do that by herself - it isnt a difficult job. X

Correct versions ~ 2. We could have gone to Scheveningen ..... 5. ... he was able to get 10% off the price. 7. I can see the beach .... 9. Id like to be able to help you ...... 10. .... they were able to reach the top of the mountain. 12. ... and in the end I was able to calm her down. 13. Ive been able to swim .... 14. .... she could have married anyone she chose. 16. She must be able to do that ....

Exercise on page 25 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The car will probably have been sold now. He asked if he could write in ball-point pen during the exam. If youve been out of the country, you wont have heard about the robbery. The line cant have been engaged all this time. There must be a fault on it. Dont start worrying. He must/might/could have taken a later plane. Where might I find a flat to rent? Im sorry to trouble you, but I was wondering if I might use your phone for a moment. My cars broken down. 8 Ive forgotten to return the key of the safe. They will have been looking/must have been looking everywhere for it. 9 You might not even have to show a pass to get in. 10 Shes wont have/cant have left without warning anyone.

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Exercises on page 29 Choose the correct preposition from the list below to complete the sentences: before 1 2 3 4 5 without after by of

They decided to warm up by cycling on. She drove on for another 25 km before stopping for a rest. After having a hurried breakfast, we were back on the road by 8 oclock. He suddenly became aware of someone standing in the corner. He drove round the corner without even slowing down.

Complete the following sentences by adding the correct preposition and the gerund form of a suitable verb 1 I left home as soon as I was capable of earning enough money to live on. 2 I would never use your computer without asking your permission first. 3 I explained that the information was necessary for obtaining a residence permit. 4 Ill have to look up the name in the files - Im terribly bad at remembering names. 5 He insisted on giving them a lift to the station. 6 You may have some difficulty in finding a taxi at the airport.

Exercise on page 30 Complete the sentence below with a suitable gerund form: 1 2 3 4 Theres a small entrance fee and so far no-one has objected to paying it Now that weve found a flat, Im really looking forward to moving in. Everything will be strange at first, but youll soon get used to living in Delft. Id prefer living in a flat in Delft to living in a house in Rotterdam.

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Exercises on page 30 Match the two halves of the sentences below so that they make sense: a b c d e f g He had been considering starting his own company. The smell of the soup put me off wanting to taste it. He looked so funny that I couldnt help laughing out loud. Youd better take a map, otherwise you risk getting completely lost. Before we went on holiday we practised saying a few phrases in Greek. As everyone was away we postponed meeting again till September. Its really stuffy in here - would you mind opening the window?

Exercise on page 30 Complete the following sentences with suitable gerunds: (theanswers given below are examples - there are, of course, many other possibilities) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 If you want to save money, youd better give up gambling/eating out/buying expensive clothes/etc I dont mind most of the housework but I cant stand washing up/ironing/etc The strawberries looked so delicious that I couldnt resist buying/trying/tasting them. Unless Brazil has a reciprocal tax arrangement with Holland, you wont be able to avoid paying taxes. Can I have the report when youve finished reading it? He said he was going to the tax office, so I suggested taking all his papers along. My job in the personnel department involves looking after the welfare of the staff. His apartment wasnt ready, so I asked him if hed mind staying in an hotel for a few days. Getting a residence permit isnt difficult, but it does involve filling in lots of forms. This offer must be accepted by the end of the month. Please do not delay in taking it up.

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Appendix 2
Grammatical Terms
active bedrijvende vorm They are doing it very well.

adjective

bijvoeglijk naamwoord

That is a beautiful song. She speaks perfect Dutch.

adverb

bijwoord

She sings beautifully. She speaks Dutch perfectly.

affirmative

bevestigend

Yes, it is.

article -definite -indefinite

lidwoord -bepaald -onbepaald

the a/an

auxiliary verb -modal (~auxiliary)

hulpwerkwoord

be have do should can could may might must will shall would ought to

consonant

medeklinker

bcdfghjklmnpqrst vwxz

gerund

gerundium

Swimming is good for you.

infinitive

infinitief

(to) go (to) come

interrogative

vragende vorm

Will you come? (inversion) Do you like it? (auxiliary)

negative

ontkennend

I wont come. I dont like it.

noun

zelfstandig naamwoord

I can see a house.

object -direct object -indirect object

voorwerp -lijdend voorwerp -meewerkend voorwerp

I can see a house. Ill give you the money. Ill give the money to you.

passive

lijdende vorm

It is being done very well.

past participle

voltooid deelwoord

He has gone. (als werkwoord) A broken egg. (als bijv. naamw.)

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plural

meervoud

the bags

preposition

voorzetsel

on in under by from etc.

pronoun -demonstrative -personal -possessive -relative

voornaamwoord -aanwijzend -persoonlijk -bezittelijk -betrekkelijk

this that these those I me you he him she her it we us they them my mine your yours his her hers its our ours their theirs who whom which that

singular

enkelvoud

the bag

subject

onderwerp

The man is reading the book.

tense tijd -simple -continuous/progressive

I live in Delft. Im living in Delft.

verb -regular -irregular

werkwoord -regelmatig/zwak -onregelmatig/sterk

work worked worked go went gone

vowel

klinker

a e i o u (y)

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