STS8

Pin-Jointed Frameworks
User Guide

© TecQuipment Ltd 2021, Original Instructions

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BW/0122
Symbols Used in this Manual
 Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS®) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Technical Details
Optional Additional Load Cell (STS8a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Mass 1.85 kgMember Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Theory
Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Strain Gauges as Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Material and Young's Modulus (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Framework Fixings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Bow's Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
The Four Frameworks and Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Method of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Method of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Loads at Several Positions and the Principle of Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Calculating Deflections using Strain Energy and the Unit Load Method . . . . . .23

Experiment Setup and Procedures

General Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Using the Inclinometer to Set Load Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
General Cautions for all Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Using VDAS® . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Experiment 1: Cantilever Trusses

Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Procedure A, Simple Cantilever Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Procedure B, Advanced Cantilever Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Procedure C, Advanced Cantilever with an Angled Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Experiment 2: The Warren Truss

Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Experiment 3: The Roof Truss

Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Procedure A, Vertical Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Procedure B, Horizontal (Side) Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Procedure C, Combined Vertical and Horizontal Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Typical Results
Experiment 1: Cantilever Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Experiment 2: The Warren Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Experiment 3: The Roof Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Example Simulated Experiment

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 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

Useful Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

Maintenance
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Spare Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Customer Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Appendix A
Where are all the Pin Joints? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Appendix B
Constructing the Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Orientating the Bosses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Cantilever Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Advanced Cantilever Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Warren Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Roof Truss Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

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 STS8
Pin-Jointed Frameworks

User Guide
Introduction

Figure 1 STS8 Shown Fitted to STS1 Structures Platform (supplied separately)

This product has VDAS® Onboard

(when used with STS1 Hub)

Many structures use frameworks or trusses. A major advantage of their use is that they are easily
constructed from simple, relatively long and thin beam elements (members). Other advantages of
these types of structures is that they are lightweight and rigid. They appear in different forms, such
as the Warren Truss or a Roof Truss in civil engineering and mechanical engineering, and also as
‘space-frames’ in vehicle and aerospace engineering.

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Figure 2 A Warren Truss Bridge

Engineers need to know how the external forces on the frameworks affect the forces on each
member and the overall framework deflections, so they can be sure that each element of their
structural design will stand the forces without fail, and not deflect excessively.

The members of real frameworks are usually joined at their ends by directly welding, by fish plates
or gussets, or a combination of techniques. This means that these real structures are not truly ‘pin-
jointed’. But, the relatively long and thin members means that the axial loads can be reasonably
accurately predicted using pin-joint theory (as if the ends are actually pin-jointed). Refer to the
extract in the Appendix of this manual for further information. See “Appendix A” on page 75.

Figure 3 Typical Girder Joints

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The frameworks in the STS8 use a number of members of different lengths, each member has strain
gauges to measure the axial load. They are joined to form frameworks of various types with ‘joint
bosses’. The bosses act as loose riveted fish plates rather than a welded construction. Thus the
frameworks represent simple but real structures.

One of a range of Experiment Modules that fit to the STS1 Structures Platform (supplied separately),
the STS8 helps with understanding the distribution of forces in members and deflection of
frameworks due to a load. A selection of four frameworks may be chosen and fitted to supports. A
load cell is used to measure and apply a force to the framework. The optional additional load cell
(STS8a) may also be fitted to measure and apply two loads at the same time at different points on
the frameworks. A digital indicator measures the deflection of the framework.

Loads may be applied to given positions on the frameworks and the resulting forces in each member
and the deflection of the framework measured. Standard equations are used to predict the forces
and deflection for any given load and compare the calculated results with the measured results. This
helps confirm the reliability of the textbook equations and the accuracy of the experiment results.

The strain gauges of each member connect to a Strain Gauge Amplifier. The Deflection Indicator
has its own display. It includes a cable for connection, along with the load cells and amplifier to the
USB Interface Hub of the Structures Platform for VDAS® display and data acquisition. VDAS® also
supports simulated experiments to allow larger loads or other dimensions not possible with the
hardware, giving extended learning.

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Description

Figure 4 STS8 Show Fitted to STS1 Structures Platform (supplied separately)

Figure 4 shows some of the main parts of the STS8. Two supports hold the frameworks using
bosses and pins. One (pinned) support allows rotation only. The other (roller) support allows rotation
and translation. The load cell has a force sensor to measure force and a screw mechanism to apply
the load. The load cell can pivot to allow loads to be applied at different angles. A trammel assembly
holds a Dial Indicator that measures deflection of the framework.

Figure 5 shows the additional upright section fitted to hold the cantilever frameworks. Figure 6
shows the optional load cell (STS8a) fitted to apply a second load to the roof truss.

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Figure 5 Additional Upright Support Fitted to Hold the Cantilevers

Figure 6 Additional Upright and Optional Load Cell Fitted

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Versatile Data Acquisition System (VDAS®)

Figure 7 The VDAS® software

The STS1 (structures platform) includes integrated data acquisition hardware that allows the unit to
be directly connected to a computer via a USB cable (provided with the unit). No additional hardware
is required. TecQuipment’s VDAS® software is fully compatible and provides the following features:

• Automatically logs data from experiments

• Automatically calculates experiment parameters
• Saves time
• Reduces errors
• Creates charts and tables of data
• Exports data for processing in other software
• Includes simulated experiments to extend experimentation beyond hardware capabilities
• Is free to download from the TecQuipment website

A suitable computer is needed (not supplied) to use TecQuipment’s

VDAS®.

Click the thumbnail below to see the VDAS® familiarisation video, or visit the TecQuipment website.

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Technical Details

Item Details Quantity

Operating Environment Laboratory or Classroom

Storage Temperature Range -25°C to +55°C (when packed for transport)

Operating Temperature Range +5°C to +40°C

Operating Relative Humidity Range 80% at temperatures <31°C decreasing linearly to 50%
at 40°C

Noise Levels <70 dB (A)

Supports One (pinned) for rotation only, the other for rotation and 2
translation (roller).
Mass 2.8 kg and 2.7 kg

Additional Upright For cantilever trusses and optional load cell 1

Mass 3 kg

Load Cell Maximum Capacity 650 N 1

RJ45 0 to 12 VDC Socket
Mass 1.85 kg

Members Each with strain gauges 13

See separate table

Strain Gauge Amplifier 16 Inputs +/-1000  range 1

Set for Full Bridge (2.6 active gauges)
Strain Connections 4P4C 0 to 5 VDC
Digital Output RJ45 0 to 12 VDC
Mass 0.75 kg

Dial Indicator Trammel Assembly Supports the Dial Indicator 1

Mass 1.35 kg (with indicator)

Dial Indicator 0.001 mm resolution 1

0 to 5 VDC Mitutoyo SPC Socket

Connecting Cables For Dial Indicator, Strain Gauge Amplifier and Load Cell 3

Hexagon Tools For fixings 2

Inclinometer To help with assembly 1

Storage Trays For smaller items 2

320 mm wide x 430 mm long x 80 mm high
Mass 1 kg plus contents

STS8 Nett Dimensions and Mass 850 mm long x 80 mm front to back and 625 mm high.
(assembled) 17 kg.

STS1 (supplied separately) Nett 1062 mm long x 420 mm wide x 295 mm high. 16 kg
Dimensions and Mass (assembled) (with Hub fitted).

Table 1 Technical Details

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Optional Additional Load Cell (STS8a)

Maximum Capacity 650 N

Mass 1.85 kg Member Details

Figure 8 Member Lengths

Member Size Member Number Approximate Distance Between

Member Length Joint Centres
(mm) (mm)

Small 1 and 2 90 115

Medium 3, 4, 5 and 6 174 199.2

Long 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 205 230

13

Table 2 Member Lengths

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Theory
Notation

Symbol Meaning Units

A Area m2

E Young’s Modulus N.m-2 or Pa

F Force N

l Length m

p A unit point load N

U Internal Energy J

V External Energy J

Ws Wind (side) load N

W Load N

Deflection m

Strain -

Stress N.m-2 or Pa


Table 3 Notation

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Strain Gauges as Instruments

Figure 9 A Strain Gauge

Strain gauges are small sheets of flexible, electrically-insulating backing material that hold thin
sheets of metal foil cut into a pattern. Engineers glue them to the surface of the material under test.
As the surface of the material deforms (stretches or contracts), so does the strain gauge. Because
most strain gauges are very thin - usually a few microns, they do not affect the test measurement.

When the strain gauge deforms, the electrical resistance of its thin strips of metal foil changes.
Stretching the foil increases its resistance. Contracting decreases its resistance. If an electrical
current is passed through the strain gauge, the current will decrease as the gauge is stretched and
increase as the gauge is contracted. This produces a change in voltage across the strain gauge.
Electronic instruments amplify this change in voltage to produce a corresponding value of strain.

Strain is effectively just a change in length, therefore it does not have any units (it is dimensionless).
For most structural elements in their elastic region the value of strain is very small, often the order
of 1x10-6 to 1x10-3. To simplify things, strain values are often stated in terms of ‘microstrain’ ().
This allows the use of more sensible numbers. However, in calculations the true value must be
used.

Normally:

• A tensile strain is a positive value (for example +500  = + 5x10-4)

• A compressive strain is shown as a negative value (for example -500 = - 5x10-4)

Figure 10 Wheatstone Bridge

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Electrical engineers use a 'Wheatstone Bridge' of resistors for the connection of strain gauges and
other similar measurement sensors (Figure 10). Named after an English scientist, this bridge helps
to measure the value of an unknown resistor (RX) if all the other resistor values are known. The
unknown resistor forms one quarter of the bridge. A fixed low voltage or 'excitation' supply is applied
to the bridge. If all resistors are of equal value, the bridge output voltage is zero. If the value of RX
is slightly greater or less than the other three, then the bridge output voltage will be more positive or
more negative than zero.

By using resistors (strain gauges) that are all changing, and placing them in the correct positions
both physically and in the Wheatstone bridge increases the voltage output of the bridge for a given
measured strain, reducing the need to amplify the signal. This is said to increase the bridge
'sensitivity', as it produces more voltage output for the same measured strain.

Figure 11 Full Bridge Connection

Fortunately, as the members are stretched or compressed, the strain at right angles moves in the
opposite direction. For instance, as the member stretches (gets longer) it also reduces in section
(gets thinner). Imagine an elastic band being stretched to visualise this. The relationship between
these two strains is called the Poisson's ratio. For most metals this ratio is around -0.3 i.e. for every
microstrain the member elongates it contracts -0.3 microstrain

This allows the use of what are called ‘Tee’ rosettes. These are two gauges conveniently
prearranged exactly at right angles to each other on a shared insulating backing (Figure 12). Having
one of these rosettes each side of the members allows a direct measurement of the strain with a full
bridge.

Figure 12 Tee Rosette

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Material and Young's Modulus (E)

The material of a structural element affects its stiffness. Stiffness is the material's resistance to
external forces that would cause the element to bend, stretch (tensile forces) or compress
(compressive forces). Elements of a stiffer material such as steel resist bending better than those
of a less stiff material, such as aluminium.

An English physicist Thomas Young experimented with material stiffness, giving it a term relating to
stiffness while the material is stressed within its elastic limits. This term is the Young's Modulus
for the material, otherwise known as its Elastic Modulus.

Material E value

Aluminium 69 x 109 Pa (69 GPa)

Brass 105 x 109 Pa (105 GPa)

Mild Steel 200 x 109 Pa (200 GPa)

Stainless Steel 195 x 109 Pa (195 GPa)

Table 4 Textbook Values of E

Force, Area, Stress and Strain

From Young’s Modulus:

E = 
---


So

 = E

And, from standards:

 = F
---
A

So

F = A

Or

F = EA

From this, if the strain, cross-sectional area and Young's Modulus are known for a structural
member, The tensile or compressive forces on the member can be predicted.

However, instead of measuring and displaying the strain directly, TecQuipment check the output per
unit force for each individual member and assign a ‘calibration factor’. This reduces the errors due
to subtle changes to the material properties, cross sectional area, and the output of the strain
gauges. Making this output directly in Newtons effectively makes each member a force
measurement instrument, which is more convenient in the context of the experiments.

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Framework Fixings

Pinned

Allows rotation but

no movement in the
vertical or horizontal
directions

Pinned and
Roller

Allows rotation and

movement in the
vertical or horizontal
directions

Table 5 Two types of Fixings

Table 5 shows the two support fixings used in the frameworks.

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Bow's Notation

Space Diagram Force Diagram

Table 6 Bow’s Notation

Named after an English engineer (RH Bow), Bow's notation helps engineers to identify coplanar
forces in simple space and force diagrams.

Table 6 shows an example of its use to find the magnitude of forces by drawing and measurement.

• The space diagram of a framework is drawn, knowing the relative angles (x and y) of the forces
and frame members.

• The three members are labelled alphabetically to identify them, DA, DB and DC. They are
normally labelled in a clockwise direction.

• Start drawing and labelling a force diagram, using lower case letters at the ends of the forces or
joints. The line ab is a vector, scaled to the magnitude of the known force F.

• Draw lines ad and bd at the correct angles from the line ab.

• Where lines ad and bd intersect allows the drawing of the line dc.

• The lines ad, bd and cd can now be measured to find the magnitude of their forces (the forces
in the members).

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The Four Frameworks and Labels

Simple Cantilever Truss

An angled member AC supports a lower
horizontal member AD (the cantilever).
A vertical member AB forms a rigid link for
stability.
A vertical load at the end gives:

AD = Compression
AC = Tension
AB = Zero

Advanced Cantilever Truss

An angled member AC, FC supports a lower
horizontal member ED, EF (the cantilever).
Vertical members AB and EF form rigid links for
stability.
A vertical load at the end gives:

AC, FC = Tension
DE, DF = Compression
AB, AE, EF = Zero

Warren Truss
Designed by a British engineer James Warren for
use in bridges. Uses equilateral triangles.

A vertical load at the centre gives:

AD, AE, AF = Compression
BD, CF, DE and EF = Tension

Roof Truss
Similar to the Howe and Pratt truss designs, after
the American inventors William Howe and
Thomas Pratt.

A vertical load at the centre gives:

AE, AG, AH, DJ = Compression
BE, BF, CI, CJ and GH = Tension
EF, FG, HI and IJ = Zero

Table 7 Frameworks and Labels

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Method of Joints
This method helps to calculate the forces in a framework by examining the equilibrium of forces at
each joint. For it to work correctly, the calculations are started with the first joint having no more than
two unknown forces.

For equilibrium, the sum of any forces at any joint = 0.

This method assumes:

• All joints have smooth pins at their ends

• Loads and reactions act only at the joints

• The weights of the members are negligible

Figure 13 Method of Joints

Choosing the joint a, because at least one force is known:

Resolving forces vertically at a:

FAC x sin 30° - 500 = 0

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So

FAC = 500/0.5 = 1000 N (positive showing tension)

Resolving forces horizontally at a:

FAD + FAC x cos 30° = 0

So

FAD = - 1000 x 0.866 = - 866 N

Resolving vertical forces at b

FAB + 500 = 0, so FAB = -500

Resolving vertical forces at c

FAB - 500 = 0, so FAB = +500

Therefore, the forces in FAB cancel to give zero.

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Method of Sections
Sometimes called the method of members, this method helps to calculate some of the forces in a
framework by theoretically cutting the frame into two or more sections, then analysing each section.
For equilibrium, the sum of forces in any section = 0.

This method assumes:

• All joints have smooth pins at their ends.

• Loads and reactions act only at the joints

• The weights of the members are negligible

Figure 14 Method of Sections

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For this frame, the sum of the two reactions upwards must equal the central force downwards.

Cutting the frame into two sections and working on the right hand side:

The sum of any moments about any point must equal zero.

To find the force in member AE (FAE), taking moments about a point X:

FFC x 0.23 sin 60° + RC x 0.23 sin 60° = FEF cos 30° x 0.23 cos 60°

So

FFC x 0.199 + RC x 0.199 = FEF cos 30° x 0.115

RC = 0, as there are no horizontal forces, so

FFC x 0.199 = FEF x 0.0996

So

FFC = (0.0996 FEF)/0.199

Vertically:
RB = FEF cos 30°

RB = 250 N, so
FEF = 250/0.866 = 288.7 N

So

FFC = (0.0996 x 288.7)/0.199 = 144.5 N

Horizontally:

FAE = FEF sin 30° + FFC + RC

RC = 0, so
FAE = 288.7 sin 30° + 144.5 = 288.85 N

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Loads at Several Positions and the Principle of Superposition

Figure 15 The Principle of Superposition

To calculate the member forces due to one or more loads, simply add the measured or calculated
forces together for the loads as if they were applied individually. The forces in the structure obey the
principle of superposition. The net forces on the structure are equal to the sum of the forces caused
by the two load conditions.

Loads at Angles
Loads can be applied to the frameworks at an angle. If two or more angled loads are applied, then
the forces in each member can be added together due to the vertical and horizontal components of
each load, using the principle of superposition.

Figure 16 Resolving an Angled Load

Figure 16 shows how an angled load (W) resolves into its horizontal (Wh) and vertical (Wv)
components.

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Calculating Deflections using Strain Energy and the Unit Load

Method
Framework structures are generally very rigid for their weight, but will of course deflect due to loads.
The deflections due to loads using the basic formula as in simple beam bending cannot be
calculated. However, the same principles used to derive the basic formula still apply. The strain
energy method (often referred to as Castigliano's method) can be used to calculate the deflection
of a framework at the joint where the load is applied. And, by applying the ‘unit load’ method, it is
possible to find the deflection at any joint with a load at another joint.

These methods sum the internal energy in each member and external energy applied by the load.

These methods assume:

• All joints have smooth pins at their ends, and are perfectly joined.

• Loads and reactions act only at the joints

• The weights of the members are negligible

• The members are homogenous (of uniform structure throughout)

• There are no other sources of deflection

Strain Energy in a Member

Figure 17 Strain Energy in a Member

From strain energy theory:

Work Done Externally = Work Done Internally
External Energy = V
Internal Strain Energy = U
So V = U

As for a spring, if a chart of the force in the member against its axial deflection is plotted, the internal
energy in the member is half the area of the chart, shown as the grey area in Figure 18.

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Figure 18 Strain Energy in the Member

Strain in a member is defined as the change in its length divided by its original length.

 = -- (1)
l

From earlier:

 = F
--- and E = 
---
A 

So, the deflection in a single member:

Fl
 = ------
- (2)
AE

This is the deflection of each member, not an overall structure.

substituting into U = F
------ , gives:
2
2
F l-
U = ---------- (3)
2AE

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Figure 19 Strain Energy in Example Framework

Figure 19 shows a simple cantilever and its relative lengths and member forces. If the strain energy
theory is applied, the vertical member experiences no force, so does not feature in the calculations.
The addition of the strain energy in the other two members gives:

2 2 2
2W  1.1547l  – 1.732 W  l  2.1547l
- + ------------------------------------- = 3.732W
U = ---------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------
2AE 2AE 2AE
Total Energy Member at 30° + Horizontal = Result
= member

Individual member deflections cannot simply be added together to give the overall deflection.
Instead however add together the strain energy terms, so from:

 = 2U
------- or  = 2U
------- then  = 3.732W  2.1547l
-------------------------------------------
F W AE

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Unit Load
For more complicated structures, a ‘unit load’ method can be used and a table of results created to
help complete the calculations. This method uses a similar internal energy idea to factor the
contribution of each member and effectively discounting any members that do not ‘contribute’ to the
defection.

Fl
 =  p  ------
AE
- (4)

Where p is a unit load in a member at the point of deflection.

This allows a simple tabular method to calculate the deflection for frameworks. Figure 20 shows a
simple example with 45° angles (rather than 60° and 30°).

Figure 20 Unit Load Example

Figure 20 shows an example framework with a load applied. It can be seen that only two members
affect the deflection at the joint between members D and C. Assume a unit load in member D
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(negative because it is in compression). Member C then has a relative unit load of 0.707. Table 8
shows how the forces are summed, lengths and other properties of the members in the framework.
It can be seen that it is only necessary to calculate the values for members C and D.

The framework has members of 6 mm square (A = 3.6 x 10-5 m2) stainless steel with an E value of
195 x 109 Pa.

Member l A E F p Fl
p  -------
(m) (m2) (Pa) (N) (N) AE
A 0.23 3.6 x 10-5 195 x 109 500 0 0

B 0.325 “ “ 707 0 0

C 0.23 “ “ -500 0 0

D 0.23 “ “ -1000 -1 3.276 x 10-5

E 0.23 “ “ 0 0 0

F 0.23 “ “ -500 0 0

G 0.325 “ “ 707 +0.707 2.314 x 10-5

 5.59 x 10-5

Table 8 Summing Properties of Members

Deflection  = 5.59 x 10-5 m = 0.0559 mm

It can be seen that the deflections for this load on this framework are very small. In practice (as will
be seen in the experiments), the movement at the joints causes much more deflection than the
changes in length of the members due to the force.

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Experiment Setup and Procedures

General Setup

Figure 21 Additional Upright

1. If the additional upright is needed, use the hexagon tool supplied and the M8 fixings to fit and
fully tighten the two red plates to hold the upright to the Structures Platform in the position
shown in the experiment. DO NOT undo or adjust the fixings that hold the red plates to the
upright.

2. Use the M8 fixings to loosely secure the two supports to the upright or to the platform as shown
in the experiment.

3. Slide the supports to the positions shown in the experiment. Use the Inclinometer (supplied) to
check that they are square to the platform beam. Use the hexagon tool supplied to tighten their
M8 fixings securely. Each support has an indicator to help locate it accurately (Figure 22).

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4. Lay the members on a flat surface and assemble them to the joints as shown in Figure 23. Note
that each joint has a locating peg to help locate it in the correct position. Hand-tighten the
locking nut on each joint. Do not use tools.
The joints allow 30°, 45°, 60° and 90° angles. The STS8 frameworks do not use the 45°
positions. They are for other products in the STS range.

5. Fit the frameworks to the supports using the two large support pins.

6. Assemble the load cell unit to the beam noting that it fastens to the lower slot on the platform
beam (Figure 24).

7. Fit the load cell locking pin to keep the load cell approximately vertical and wind the load cell
control so that the centre set of clevis holes align with the joint boss. Fit the support pin (Figure
30). Remove the locking pin (Figure 29) if setting the load cell for an angled load. See “Using
the Inclinometer to Set Load Angle” on page 35.

Figure 22 Fitting the Supports

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Figure 23 Assembling Pin Joints

Figure 24 Fit the Load Cell Locking Pin

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8. Use the hexagon tool supplied and the M4 fixings to fit the Trammel to the back of the support
(Figure 25).

9. Fit the dial indicator to the trammel and align its tip with the back of the joint as shown (Figure
25).

Figure 25 Fitting the Trammel and Dial Indicator

10.Fit the Strain Gauge Amplifier to the rear beam of the Platform and use the cable supplied to
connect it’s DIGITAL OUTPUT socket to any of the DIGITAL INPUT sockets on the Hub of the
STS1 Platform (Figure 26).

11. Connect the load cell to any of the DIGITAL INPUT sockets on the Hub of the STS1 Platform
(Figure 27).

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Figure 26 Fit the Strain Amplifier

Figure 27 Connect the Strain Amplifier and Load Cell to the Hub
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Figure 28 The Dial Indicator

1. The Dial Indicator has an internal battery (supplied). Fit the battery as shown in the
manufacturer’s instructions (Figure 28).

2. Remove the small flexible plug in the top of the indicator and use the cable supplied to connect
the Dial Indicator to the Interface Hub (Figure 28).

3. Before and after each experiment, use the DATA ON/OFF button to the right to turn the indicator
on and off.

4. Use the SET button to zero the displayed readings.

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Using the Inclinometer to Set Load Angle

Figure 29 Remove the Locking Pin

Figure 30 Hold Inclinometer Against Load Cell

To adjust the load cell angle:

• Remove the locking pin if fitted (Figure 29).

• Use the hexagon tool supplied to loosen and re-tighten the two fixings to the back of the load
cell, while holding the inclinometer against the Load Cell (Figure 30).
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General Cautions for all Experiments

In order to avoid damage to the apparatus please observer the points below.

Fully tighten all fixings

Fully insert the pins in the supports and top of Load Cell clevis
Do not apply any loads > 600 N (400 N + 200 N pre-load)

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Using VDAS®
• Read the STS1 User Guide for general details of how to install and use the Hub.

• See the VDAS® User Guide for details on installation and start up.

• There is comprehensive online help within VDAS® accessed by pressing F1 at any time. There
is also a VDAS familiarisation video available on our website or by clicking the thumbnail below:

Figure 31 The VDAS® Software

1. Start the VDAS® software on the computer (not supplied). See the VDAS® User Guide for
details on installation and start up of the software.

2. Make sure the hardware and Hub have been connected correctly. (Figure 35) shows a general
connection guide.

3. A dialogue box will appear, prompting the entry of the member calibration factors before the
experiment is performed.

4. Press the stem of the deflection indicator. Check that the deflection reading changes. The
member forces will not work until the member calibration factors have been entered.

5. The default calibration factors are 330 for each member. Check the cables of each member.
Each will have its member number and a calibration factor between 300 and 360. Enter the
correct numbers into the boxes.

6. The calibration factors may be saved as a file for re-use later. To do this, click ‘Save’. A
Dialogue box will open that allows the saving of the calebration factors in a suitable folder on
your computer.

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7. In future, rather than manually enter the calibration factors, they may now be loaded from this
file using ‘Load’ and navigating to the previously saved file.

If ‘he calibration factors are not input, the force readings will not work.

8. Select from the drop down menu, the experiment that matches the experiment required, for
example ‘Advanced Cantilever Truss’.

9. To view the setup of an experiment click on the experiments graphic on the VDAS menu bar
(Figure 32).

Figure 32 Experiments Graphic

The setup for the currently selected experiment will be displayed, for example ‘Advanced
Cantilever Truss’ (Figure 33).

Figure 33 Example Experiment Setup Window

10.Use the Member Mapping controls to select the Bow’s notation letters that match the numbered
members.

11. Enter the variables such as load angle.

12.Do the experiment.

13.Click on the Data tab followed by Record Data button (or press F4) each time data is to be
logged. The Data Rows in Series indicator at the bottom right of the screen will increment.

14.Click on the Data tab followed by Display Data Tables button to see and export the data
(Figure 34).

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15.When the experiments are completed, click the ‘Close’ button to the top right of the software.

Figure 34 STS8 Data Table

Figure 35 General Connection Guide

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VDAS® Simulation

Figure 36 Example STS8 Simulation Screen

1. Start the VDAS® software, if necessary, select the Options menu then Select VDAS®
Application then select STS8.

2. Click the Simulation tab.

3. Choose from the drop down menu the experiment that matches the experiment to be simulated.
Enter the variables such as length or load.

4. To view the setup of an experiment click on the experiments graphic on the VDAS menu bar
(Figure 32). The setup for the currently selected experiment will be displayed, for example
‘Advanced Cantilever Truss’ (Figure 33).

5. As the variables are entered, the result will update, simulating the expected value based on
theory.

When simulating the experiments completed using the hardware, some

minor differences can be expected due to the rounding up of values and
the use of ‘ideal’ theory.

6. When the experiments are completed, click the ‘Close’ button to the top right of the software to
exit the simulation screen.

For the roof truss side loading, the simulation software allows the load
direction to be changed from down to up or left to right by simply adding a
negative value in the W (N) or Ws (N) variables data entry boxes. This will
of course change the polarity of compressive or tensile forces in the
members.

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Experiment 1: Cantilever Trusses

Aims
• To introduce the user to the equipment

• To explore the relationship between the applied load and the forces in the members

• To show that pin-joint theory predicts the member forces with reasonable accuracy

• To show that not all members carry loads in all cases, and that all loading cases should be
considered

Procedure A, Simple Cantilever Truss

Figure 37 Experiment 1 Procedure A Setup

Member Size Quantity

Short 1

Medium 1

Long 1

Table 9 Experiment 1 Procedure A Members Needed

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Framework:
Load Angle:

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

Table 10 Experiment 1 Blank Results Table

1. Create a blank table of results similar to Table 10. Note: VDAS® can automatically produce a
results table for export to a spreadsheet computer application.

2. Fit the additional upright, supports and load cell to the positions as shown (Figure 38).

3. Build the simple cantilever and fit it to the supports and load cell (Figure 38). For detailed
instructions see "Appendix B" page 77 and "Cantilever Truss" page 79.

4. Carefully adjust the load cell position and use the inclinometer to check that it is vertical (Figure
30).

5. Carefully wind the load cell until the framework just goes tight and make sure the load cell
remains vertical. Release the load.

6. Connect the cable from each member to the strain gauge amplifier, so member 1 connects to
input 1, member 3 connects to input 3. Note its Bow’s notation position in the framework.

7. Connect the Hub to the computer and start the software as described earlier. See “Using
VDAS®” on page 37.

Allow the strain gauges to ‘warm up’ by leaving them connected to the Hub
and powered up for at least two minutes before proceeding to the next
step.

8. With zero load on the load cell, (the pin in the clevis should turn easily (Figure 30)) check that
the load reading is zero +/- 20 N.

9. Carefully apply a load of around 600 N. This settles the members and joints. With the load still
applied, check that the framework is secure and stable. Note that the roller support will
compensate for any movement of the pinned support.

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Do not exceed a load of 600N as this could damage the apparatus.

10.Reduce the load to zero, then apply a pre-load of around 200 N. Zero both the load cell and
member readings. Note the resolution of the readings is around 5 N, so the readings may vary
by this amount at any time.

11. Take a zero reading for each member and enter these into the results table.

12.Apply a load of 100 N +/- 1 N, and allow the member readings to settle, then record the member
forces in the results table.

13.Increase the load in 100 N increments, to a maximum of 400 N, recording the member forces at
each increment of load.

Analysis Part A
• Create a chart of member force (vertical axis) against applied load. Add the results for each
member (there is no need to add the results of members that show little or no change in force).

• Confirm that the force in each member increases linearly with load.

• Find the gradient of the line for each member. This represents the measured force per unit load.

• Using any method as shown in the theory section, calculate the member forces per unit load
and compare them to the measured results.

• Which one of the members carries a (near) zero load? Why is that? If it does read a little, what
could be the cause (hint - think about ‘perfect’ support conditions). Could the structure exist
without it (hint - think about what could happen to the geometry of the frame without it).

Procedure B, Advanced Cantilever Truss

Figure 38 Experiment 1 Procedure B Experiment Setup

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Member Size Quantity

Short 1

Medium 2

Long 4

Table 11 Experiment 1 Procedure B Members Needed

Repeat Procedure A, but use the advanced cantilever truss (Figure 38). For detailed instructions
see "Appendix B" page 77 and "Advanced Cantilever Truss" page 79.

Analysis Part B
• Repeat the analysis as in part A. See “Analysis Part A” on page 43. Identify the members that
carry zero or very little load. Although they don't carry a load in a real structure, why is it useful
to have them there? Hint - member EF doesn't ‘help’ AC or CF that are in tension, but could be
useful to help members DE and DF which are in compression.

Procedure C, Advanced Cantilever with an Angled Load

Repeat procedure B, but with the load cell angled inwards by 20 degrees. This simulates a load on
the structure that has swung inwards, as in a crane with a wrecking ball.

Analysis Part C
• Repeat the analysis as in part B. Plot the results for each member on the same graph if
possible. How has it affected the load?

• Given the conclusions in part B, why is this a more perilous loading condition than if the load
had swung away? Calculate the member forces in this condition to confirm the conclusions.
Note that the example simulation experiment shows this condition. See “Example Simulated
Experiment” on page 69.

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Experiment 2: The Warren Truss

Aims
• To explore the relationship between the applied load and the forces in the members for a
Warren Girder

• To show that pin-jointed theory predicts the member forces reasonably accurately

• To show the relationship between the applied load and the deflection, and compare measured
defections of the framework to those obtained by calculation

Procedure

Figure 39 Experiment 2 Setup

Member Size Quantity

Short 0

Medium 0

Long 7

Table 12 Experiment 2 Members Needed

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Framework:
Load Angle:

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

Dial Indicator Reading

Deflection (mm)

Table 13 Experiment 2 Blank Results Table

1. Create a blank table of results similar to Table 13. Note: VDAS® can automatically produce a
results table for export to a spreadsheet computer application.

2. Fit the supports, load cell and dial indicator trammel arm to the positions as shown (Figure 40).

3. Build the Warren Truss and fit it to the supports and load cell (Figure 40). For detailed
instructions see "Appendix B" page 77 and "Warren Truss" page 80.

4. Carefully adjust the load cell position and use the angle gauge to check that it is vertical (Figure
30).

5. Carefully wind the load cell until the framework just goes tight and make sure the load cell
remains vertical. Release the load.

6. Check that the dial indicator is roughly in the middle of its travel. Use the cable supplied to
connect it to the Hub (DTI 1) (Figure 40).

7. Connect the cable from each member to the strain gauge amplifier, so member 7 connects to
input 7, member 13 connects to input 13. Note its Bow’s notation position in the framework.

8. Connect the Hub to the computer and start the software as described earlier. See “Using
VDAS®” on page 37.

Allow the strain gauges to ‘warm up’ by leaving them connected to the Hub
and powered up for at least two minutes before proceeding to the next
step.

9. With zero load on the load cell, (the pin in the clevis should turn easily (Figure 30)) check that
the load is zero.
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10.Carefully apply a load of around 600 N. This settles the members and joints. With the load still
applied, check that the framework is secure and stable. Note that the roller support will
compensate for any movement of the pinned support.

Do not exceed a load of 600N as this could damage the apparatus.

11. Reduce the load to zero, then apply a pre-load of around 200 N. Zero both the load cell and
member readings. Note the resolution of the readings is around 5 N, so the readings may vary
by this amount at any time.

12.Zero the indicator +/- 0.5 mm. It is very sensitive and it may not be possible to zero it precisely.
Note this reading.

13.Take a zero force reading for each member and enter these into the results table.

14.Apply a load of 100 N, and allow the member readings to settle, then record the member forces
in the results table, and the deflection.

15.Increase the load in 100 N increments, to a maximum of 400 N recording the member forces
and deflection at each increment of load.

Analysis
• Create a chart of member force (vertical axis) against applied load. Add the results for each
member.

• Confirm that the force in each member increases linearly with load.

• Find the gradient of the line for each member. This represents the measured force per unit load.

• Using any method as shown in the theory section, calculate the member forces per unit load
and compare them to the measured results.

• Create a chart of deflection (vertical axis) against applied load and confirm that the deflection is
linear with applied load.

• Use the unit load method to calculate the deflection of the frame for a load of 400 N. Compare
this to the measured value. Comment on the magnitude of the calculated values compared to
those measured on the real structure.

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Experiment 3: The Roof Truss

Aims
• To explore the relationship between the applied load and the forces in the members for a roof
truss structure

• To show that Pin jointed theory predicts the member forces reasonably accurately

• To apply both vertical and horizontal loads to the structure

• To illustrate and confirm the principle of superposition (using optional extra load cell)

Procedure A, Vertical Load

Figure 40 Experiment 3 Procedure A Setup

Member Size Quantity

Short 2

Medium 4

Long 7

Table 14 Experiment 3 Members Needed

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Framework:
Load Angle:

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

Table 15 Experiment 3 Blank Results Table

1. Create a blank table of results similar to Table 15. Note: VDAS® can automatically produce a
results table for export to a spreadsheet computer application.

2. Fit the supports and load cell to the positions as shown (Figure 40).

3. Build the Roof Truss and fit it to the supports and load cell (Figure 40). For detailed instructions
see "Appendix B" page 77"Roof Truss Layout" page 80.

4. Carefully adjust the load cell position and use the inclinometer to check that it is vertical (Figure
30).

5. Carefully wind the load cell until the framework just goes tight and make sure the load cell
remains vertical. Release the load.

6. Connect the cable from each member to the strain gauge amplifier, so member 1 connects to
input 1, member 13 connects to input 13. Note its Bow’s notation position in the framework.

7. Start VDAS® as shown earlier in this guide. See “Using VDAS®” on page 37.

Allow the strain gauges to ‘warm up’ by leaving them connected to the Hub
and powered up for at least two minutes before proceeding to the next
step.

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8. With zero load on the load cell, (the pin in the clevis should turn easily) check that the load is
zero +/- 20 N.

9. Carefully apply a load of around 600 N. This settles the members and joints. With the load still
applied, check that the framework is secure and stable. Note that the roller support will
compensate for any movement of the pinned support.

Do not exceed a load of 600N as this could damage the apparatus.

10.Reduce the load to zero, then apply a pre-load of around 200 N. Zero both the load cell and
member readings. Note the resolution of the readings is around 5 N, so the readings may vary
by this amount at any time.

11. Take a zero force reading for each member and enter these into the results table.

12.Apply a load of 100 N +/- 1 N, and allow the member readings to settle, then record the member
forces in the results table.

13.Increase the load in 100 N +/- 1 N increments, to a maximum of 400 N recording the member
forces at each increment of load.

Analysis
• Create a chart of member force (vertical axis) against applied load. Add the results for each
member (there is no need to add the results of members that show little or no change in force).

• Confirm that the force in each member increases linearly with load.

• Find the gradient of the line for each member. This represents the measured force per unit load.

• Using any method as shown in the theory section, calculate the member forces per unit load
and compare them to the measured results.

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Procedure B, Horizontal (Side) Loading

Figure 41 Experiment 3 Procedure B Experiment Setup

1. As shown, fit the additional upright and move the load cell to the upright. Use the angle gauge
to make sure it is horizontal (Figure 41).

2. Repeat procedure part A, but use the load cell to apply a compressive force (towards the roof
truss). This simulates a side (wind) load, rather than a force pulling away from the truss.

Analysis
• Repeat the analysis as per part A.

• Use the principle of superposition to calculate the unit loads for combined vertical and
horizontal loads. Compare them with those for the two loading cases.

Procedure C, Combined Vertical and Horizontal Loading

This experiment needs the optional additional load cell STS8a.

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Figure 42 Experiment 3 Procedure C Setup

1. As shown, fit both load cells. Use the inclinometer to make sure they are horizontal and vertical
(Figure 30).

2. Repeat Procedure A, but increasing the loads simultaneously in steps of 100 N. Make sure
each load cell applies the same load. Note that they are interactive, so only make small
adjustments on each load cell at a time.

Analysis
• Repeat the analysis as per part A. Compare the results with those from part B using the
principle of superposition, to confirm the theory.

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Typical Results

These results are for guidance only. The results may be slightly different,
due to measurement accuracy and how well the instructions have been
followed.

Experiment 1: Cantilever Trusses

Procedure A, Simple Cantilever Truss

Framework: Simple Cantilever

Load Angle: Vertical

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

1 AB 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

5 AD -1.73 3 -172 -343 -517 -690 -1.731

11 AC 2 3 205 405 607 811 2.018

Table 16 Typical Results Experiment 1 Procedure A, Simple Cantilever Truss

The measured forces should show a linear increase with load, except the vertical member AB which
should carry no force. This may show a small force due to friction at the roller support and small
errors in geometry caused by some movement in the joints.

The measured and calculated results should compare well, showing that the theory works well, even
for a frame which is not truly pin-jointed.

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Simple Cantilever
1000

800

y = 2.018x + 2.6
600

400
Member AC
Member Force (N)

Member AD
200

0
0 100 200 300 400

-200

-400
y = -1.731x + 2.4

-600

-800
Applied Load (N)

Figure 43 Member Force against Applied Load Simple Cantilever Truss

Procedure B, Advanced Cantilever Truss

Framework: Advanced Cantilever

Load Angle: Vertical

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

1 EF 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 DE -1.73 5 -165 -335 -503 -675 -1.698

5 DF -1.73 4 -168 -338 -507 -678 -1.703

7 AB 0 -6 -6 -10 -13 -15 0

9 AE 0 3 -1 1 1 1 0

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Framework: Advanced Cantilever

Load Angle: Vertical

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number
Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

11 CF 2 -3 197 391 599 797 2.002

13 AC 2 3 202 401 611 811 2.025

Table 17 Typical Results Experiment 1 Procedure B Advanced Cantilever Truss

The measured forces should show a linear increase with load, except members AB, EF and AE,
which should carry no load. They may show a small force, as explained in part A.

The measured and calculated results should compare well, showing that the theory works well.

Members AE and EF may not carry force with the vertical load, but they add stability to the structure,
preventing possible collapse of other members under certain conditions. They would potentially
prevent buckling in members DE and EF if it were a real structure.

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Member Forces
900

y = 2.025x + 0.6

700

y = 2.002x - 4.2

500

Member AC
300 Member CF
Member DE
Member Force (N)

Member DF
100

0 100 200 300 400

-100

-300

-500 y = -1.703x + 3.2

y = -1.698x + 5
-700

-900
Applied Load (N)

Figure 44 Member Force Against Applied Load Advanced Cantilever Truss

Procedure C, Advanced Cantilever with an Angled Load

Framework: Advanced Cantilever

Load Angle: 20 degrees

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

1 EF 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 DE -1.97 6 -186 -382 -576 -770 -1.942

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Framework: Advanced Cantilever

Load Angle: 20 degrees

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number
Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

5 DF -1.97 2 -193 -394 -590 -789 -1.979

7 AB 0 -7 -8 -12 -7 -12 0

9 AE 0 0 -1 1 -7 0 0

11 CF 1.88 6 184 371 554 739 1.836

13 AC 1.88 -7 183 374 560 751 1.893

Table 18 Typical Results Experiment 1 Procedure C Advanced Cantilever with Angled Load

The measured forces should show a linear increase with load, except members AB, EF and AE,
which should carry no load. They may show a small force, as explained in part A.

The measured and calculated results should compare well, showing that the theory works well.

The 20 degree inward angle of the load causes an increased compression force of almost 200% of
the load on members DE and DF. An outward load causes a compression of around 128% of the
load. This inward load creates a more perilous condition, as extreme values of compression could
cause the members to buckle.

The example simulation experiment shows this condition. See “Example

Simulated Experiment” on page 69.

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Member Forces
1000

800
y = 1.893x - 6.4

600
y = 1.836x + 3.6

400
Member AC
Member CF
Member Force (N)

200
Member DE
Member DF
0
0 100 200 300 400

-200

-400
y = -1.942x + 6.8

-600

-800 y = -1.979x + 3

-1000
Applied Load (N)

Figure 45 Member Force against Applied Load Experiment 1 Procedure C Advanced Cantilever
with Angled Load

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Experiment 2: The Warren Truss

Framework: Warren Girder

Load Angle: Vertical

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

7 AE -0.577 -3 -56 -117 -173 -236 -0.583

8 AF -0.577 3 -60 -118 -174 -232 -0.584

9 DE 0.577 3 58 115 173 236 0.581

10 EF 0.577 -3 57 116 174 236 0.595

11 AD -0.577 -1 -55 -110 -168 -226 -0.581

12 CF 0.289 2 29 56 90 118 0.293

13 BD 0.289 1 30 60 91 120 0.299

Dial Indicator Reading 0.022 0.054 0.079 0.107 0.129

Deflection (mm) 0 0.032 0.057 0.085 0.107

Table 19 Typical Results Experiment 2 the Warren Truss

The measured forces should show a linear increase with load.

The measured and calculated results should compare well, showing that the theory works well.

The calculated deflection should be significantly less then the measured deflection. This is as
described earlier in this guide. The theory assumes a perfect structure where the joints do not move.
In reality, the joints are not perfect, so they will move and add to the real deflection. However, the
deflection is still small when the applied load of several hundred Newtons to such a small and
relatively slim structure is considered, showing how stiff they are as structures.

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Member Forces
300

y = 0.595x - 3
y = 0.581x + 0.8

200

y = 0.299x + 0.6

100

y = 0.293x + 0.4
Member Force (N)

0
0 100 200 300 400

-100 Member AD
Member AE
Member AF
y = -0.563x + 0.6
Member BD
-200 Member CF y = -0.583x - 0.4
Member DE
y = -0.584x + 0.6
Member EF

-300
Applied Load (N)

Figure 46 Member Force against Applied Load Experiment 2 The Warren Truss

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Experiment 3: The Roof Truss

Procedure A, Vertical Load

Framework: Roof Truss

Load Angle: Vertical

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

1 IJ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 EF 0 -1 -3 0 -1 -4 0

3 CI 0.866 3 87 173 258 340 0.845

4 BF 0.866 0 86 177 264 359 0.896

5 CJ 0.866 -6 79 162 269 336 0.874

6 BE 0.866 -4 86 177 268 361 0.912

7 GH 1 -3 99 201 301 407 1.022

8 AE -1 1 -95 -189 -289 -390 -0.976

9 HI 0 0 1 1 1 -1 0

10 AG -1 0 -101 -197 -301 -403 -1.006

11 DJ -1 -6 -108 -203 -307 -411 -1.009

12 FG 0 -1 3 2 1 0 0

13 AH -1 3 -103 -201 -307 -410 -1.03

Table 20 Typical Results Experiment 3 Procedure A Vertical Load

The measured forces should show a linear increase with load, except members IJ, EF, HI and FG,
which should carry no load. They may show a small force, as the pin joints are excellent but not
‘perfect’, so some of the load may transfer due to small movements in the supports and fixings.

The measured and calculated results should compare well, showing that the theory works well. It is
likely that there may be slightly greater errors than for simpler frameworks previously tested as there
are more joints, which give a greater scope for small changes in geometry.

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Member Forces
500

400 y = 1.022x - 3.4 y = 0.896x - 2

y = 0.912x - 4.8
300 y = 0.874x - 6.8

y = 0.845x + 3.2
200
Member Force (N)

100

0
0 100 200 300 400 500

-100

-200
Member CI
Member BF
Member GH
-300
Member AE
y = -0.976x + 2.8
Member CJ
Member BE
-400 Member AG y = -1.006x + 0.8
Member DJ y = -1.03x + 2.4
y = -1.009x - 5.2
Member AH
-500
Applied Load (N)

Figure 47 Member Force against Applied Load Experiment 3 Procedure A Vertical Load

Procedure B, Horizontal (Side) Loading

Framework: Roof Truss

Load Angle: Horizontal

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

1 IJ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 EF 0 1 3 2 1 3 0

3 CI -0.25 -3 -25 -52 -80 -100 -0.249

4 BF -0.75 1 -75 -151 -228 -300 -0.755

5 CJ -0.25 0 -27 -54 -79 -102 -0.256

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Framework: Roof Truss

Load Angle: Horizontal

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number
Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

6 BE -0.75 -1 -75 -151 -227 -305 -0.76

7 GH 0.289 -1 29 56 85 114 0.286

8 AE -0.278 0 -30 -55 -83 -110 -0.273

9 HI -0.577 2 -58 -114 -174 -229 -0.578

10 AG -0.289 -1 -29 -57 -86 -113 -0.281

11 DJ 0.289 -5 24 57 89 117 0.309

12 FG 0 -1 -2 -1 0 0 0

13 AH -0.289 4 -27 -60 -89 -119 -0.308

Table 21 Typical Results Experiment 3 Procedure B

The measured forces should show a linear increase with load, except members IJ, EF and FG,
which should carry no load. They may show a small force, as explained in procedure A.

Member HI shows a force as it starts to carry some of the horizontal load.

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Member Forces
150
y = 0.309x - 5.4

100
y = 0.286x - 0.6

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Member Force (N)

-50
y = -0.249x - 2.2

-100 y = -0.256x - 1.2

Member CI y = -0.308x + 3.4
y = -0.273x - 1
-150 Member BF
y = -0.281x - 1
Member GH
Member AE
-200
y = -0.578x + 1
Member CJ
Member BE
-250
Member AG y = -0.755x + 0.4
Member DJ
-300
Member AH
y = -0.76x + 0.2
Member HI
-350
Applied Load (N)

Figure 48 Typical Results Experiment 3 Procedure A Horizontal (side) Loading

Procedure C, Combined Vertical and Horizontal Loading

Framework: Roof Truss

Load Angle: Combined Vertical and Horizontal

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number

Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

1 IJ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 EF 0 1 0 0 0 -1 0

3 CI 0.616 -2 62 121 180 225 0.572

4 BF 0.116 -3 12 20 34 40 0.108

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Framework: Roof Truss

Load Angle: Combined Vertical and Horizontal

Calculated Load W (N) Measured

Force Per Force Per
Position
Member
Number
Unit Load 0 100 200 300 400 Unit Load

Measured Measured Measured Measured Measured

Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N) Force (N)

5 CJ 0.616 -2 62 120 182 226 0.576

6 BE 0.116 1 15 26 40 48 0.119

7 GH 1.289 5 136 261 393 516 1.279

8 AE -1.278 5 -120 -243 -368 -488 -1.234

9 HI -0.577 1 -58 -114 -172 -222 -0.56

10 AG -1.289 0 -131 -254 -382 -511 -1.273

11 DJ -0.711 -1 -76 -140 -210 -266 -0.664

12 FG 0 3 2 2 5 2 0

13 AH -1.289 4 -131 -264 -397 -522 -1.318

Table 22 Typical Results Experiment 3 Procedure C

The measured forces should show a linear increase with load, except members IJ, EF and FG,
which should carry no load. They may show a small force, as explained in procedure A.

Member HI shows a force as it starts to carry some of the horizontal load.

The combined results should show that a simple sum of the force per unit load of the vertical and
horizontal values equates approximately to the combined values, showing the principle of
superposition.

For example, using the measured values for member DJ shows -1.009 for the vertical loading, 0.309
for the horizontal loading and -0.664 for the combined loading (-1.009+0.309 = 0.7).

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Member CI
Member Forces
Member BF
600
Member GH
Member AE
Member CJ
y = 1.279x + 6.4
400 Member BE
Member AG
Member DJ
Member AH y = 0.576x + 2.4
200
Member HI y = 0.572x + 2.8
Member Force (N)

y = 0.119x + 2.2
y = 0.108x - 1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500

y = -0.56x - 1
-200

y = -0.664x - 5.8

-400
y = -1.234x + 4

y = -1.318x + 1.6 y = -1.273x - 1

-600
Applied Load (N)

Figure 49 member Force against Applied Load Experiment 3 Procedure C

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Example Simulated Experiment

Figure 50 Example Simulation Software

The VDAS® software included with this product:

• Allows students to simulate the hands-on laboratory experiments and confirm their
hand calculations and results.

• Allows simulation of alternative set-ups, extending the learning experience beyond

the practical laboratory session.

• The simulations allow changes to the experiment setup, giving a wide variety of possibilities for
students to explore the ruling equations and principles.

TecQuipment provide an example simulated experiment to show these possibilities and provide a
basis for further work.

Background
The equipment can be configured in many ways, but it can be quicker and simpler to use the
simulation to prove theories for a simple change in load or direction. This experiment builds on the
lessons learned from the advanced cantilever experiment using the hardware.

Aim
To see how a simple change in load direction (such as in a crane fitted with a wrecking ball) can
dramatically affect the member forces in an advanced cantilever truss, causing a possibly perilous
condition, where the members could buckle. Experiment 1 part C gives a more practical
demonstration of this condition.

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Procedure
1. Select the advanced cantilever. Apply a vertical load (angle = 0°) of 500 N and note the
maximum negative (compressive) member forces.

2. Change the load angle to +20° (an inward load direction, towards the truss supports) and note
the maximum compressive forces.

3. Change the load angle to -20° (an outward load direction, away for the truss supports) and note
the maximum compressive forces.

Analysis
• Note the direction of load that causes the highest compressive force values in the members.
Which of the load directions causes the most perilous condition? Why are the compressive
forces of most concern in this type of structure?

• From the results, if designing a crane used to hold a wrecking ball, what factors would need to
be considered?

Answers
For a vertical load, the maximum forces are -865 N.

For a +20° inward load, the maximum forces are -984 N.

For a -20° outward load, the maximum forces are -642 N.

With the inward load, the compressive forces are almost twice the load.

The positive forces are tensile (as a stretching force in the member), the negative forces are
compressive. Compressive forces are the most perilous for frameworks using slender members, as
they are liable to cause buckling of the members and structural collapse.

A crane designed for wrecking balls would need to have more substantial (less slender) members
in the areas subject to compressive forces. They would need to withstand the load at its highest
expected angle inwards.

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Useful Textbooks
Structural and Stress Analysis

By THG Megson

ISBN 0-340-63196-1

Mechanical Science

By W. Bolton

ISBN 978-1-4051-3794-2

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Maintenance
General
When it is not in use, disconnect the apparatus from the electrical supply.

Renew faulty or damaged parts with an equivalent item of the same type or
rating.

Disconnect the electrical supply to the apparatus before opening any

covers or guards.

• Regularly check all parts of the equipment for damage and renew if necessary. Renew
any faulty or damaged parts with an equivalent item of the same type or rating.

• Regularly check all fixings and tighten if necessary.

• When not in use, store the equipment in a dry, dust-free area. Cover with a plastic sheet
if possible.

• Clean off any dirt using a damp, clean cloth. Do not use abrasive cleaners. Do not
allow any liquid to enter any of the electronic parts.

Electrical

A qualified person must carry out electrical maintenance.

Ensure the following procedures are followed.

• Assume the apparatus is energised until it is known to be isolated from the electrical supply.

• Use insulated tools where there are possible electrical hazards.

• Confirm that the apparatus earth circuit is complete.

• Identify the cause of a blown fuse or tripped circuit breaker before renewing or resetting.

Mains Adaptor
There are no user servicable parts on the mains adaptor. If it fails, contact TecQuipment or the local
agent for a replacement. DO NOT attempt to repair it.

Hub Fuse
There is an internal fuse in the Hub but this is not user-serviceable. If the Hub fails, ask a qualified
electronics engineer to check the cause of the fault or preferably contact TecQuipment for customer
support.

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Spare Parts
Refer to the Packing Contents List for any spare parts supplied with the apparatus.

If technical assistance or spares are required, please contact the local TecQuipment agent, or
contact TecQuipment direct.

To assist us in processing the request quickly and efficiently, when requesting spares please include
the following:

• Contact name
• The full name and address of the college, company or institution
• Contact email address
• The TecQuipment product name and product reference
• The TecQuipment part number (if known)
• The serial number
• The year of purchase (if known)

Please provide us with as much detail as possible about the parts required and check the details
carefully before contacting us.

If the product is no longer under warranty, TecQuipment will send a price quotation for confirmation.

Customer Care
We hope our products and manuals are liked. If there are any questions, please contact our
Customer Care department:

Telephone: +44 115 9722611

Fax: +44 115 973 1520

email: customer.care@tecquipment.com

For information about all TecQuipment Products and Services, visit:

www.tecquipment.com

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Appendix A
Where are all the Pin Joints?
‘Much of engineering mechanics is based on the assumption that parts of structures are connected
by pin joints. Similarly, members are continually assumed to be ‘simply supported’ and structural
members pretend to be infinitely long, compared with their section thickness. The question is: do
such members really exist?

They are certainly not immediately apparent - look at a bridge or steel tower and it will be a struggle
to find a single joint containing a pin. The structural members will be channels, I-beams, or box
sections surrounded by a clutter of plates, gussets and flanges, not simple beams of nice prismatic
section. So where is the relevance of all those clean theories of statics and vector mechanics?

Fortunately, the answer exists already, hidden in 200 years of engineering experience. Calculations
based on simple bending theory, for example, have been validated against actual maximum
stresses and deflections experienced in real structures and proved sufficiently accurate (say +/-
10%) to represent reality. Once a factor of safety is introduced, then the simplified calculations are
as accurate as they need to be. They are, to all intents and purposes, correct.

Simply supported assumptions work the same way. The complicated-looking supports of a bridge
deck do act like simple supports when the length of the beam-like members they are supporting are
considered. Equally, the members themselves dissipate stresses induced by constraint from the
‘real’ supports within a short distance from the support, so they act like long thin members, even
though they may not be.

The design of engineering structures is built around findings like this. They have been proven
quantitatively, by using strain gauges and measuring deflections, and by advanced techniques such
as FE analysis and photo-elastic models. Complete structures, aeroplanes, ships, and buildings
have been investigated to demonstrate the validity of taught theories of statics and mechanics. The
result is that all these types of structures in the world are designed using equations which are
unerringly similar - proof enough of the validity of the theories behind them. Try to improve
theoretical techniques, by all means, but don’t ignore what has been found already, including those
assumptions about pin joints and simply supported beams.’

Extracted from the ‘Engineers’ Data Book’ by Clifford Matthews (ISBN 1-86058-456-X).

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Appendix B
Constructing the Trusses
The bosses that hold the trusses together come in two parts a back and a front (Figure 51).

Figure 51 Parts of the Boss

Each joint of a truss is built on the back of the boss then secured by placing the front over the top
followed by a nut to hold it all together (Figure 51).

The bosses have slots at varying angles for the struts to be located in. The front of the boss is
orientated onto the back by a pin in the front boss that slots into the only hole on a raised section of
the back boss (Figure 51).

Because the slots for the struts are at varying angles it is not always obvious what orientation the
boss needs to be in for the truss being constructed or where the various lengths of strut need to be
placed.

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Orientating the Bosses

The following diagrams are provided to assist with the construction of the various trusses required
for the experiments.

Figure 50 shows a plan view of the back of a boss. The letter ‘P’ indicates where the locating hole
is and this hole will be used to indicate the required orientation of the boss.

In some instances, the orientations of the bosses shown are not the only
orientations possible for joining the trusses in the correct orientations.

The letters S, M and L are used to indicate the lengths of the various trusses (Short, Medium or
Long).

Figure 52 Back of a Boss

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Cantilever Truss

Figure 53 Cantilever Truss Layout

Advanced Cantilever Truss

Figure 54 Advanced Cantilever Truss Layout

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Warren Truss

Figure 55 Warren Truss Layout

Roof Truss Layout

This is the most complicated layout, it is recommended that the following method is used when
constructing this truss.

1. Locate the struts required and lay them out in the correct arrangement without placing any
bosses. See Figure 56(a).

2. Locate the central bottom joint 1, orientate the boss as shown. See Figure 56(b), loosely fit the
front boss and nut.

3. Fit joints 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the same way followed by the two upper joints 6 and 7 and finally the
top joint 8. Refer to Figure 57 for the orientation of the bosses for each joint number.

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Figure 56 Roof Truss Layout

Figure 57 Orientation of Bosses

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