1 GRADE-X/BIO MANUAL/2024-25

BIOLOGY LAB MANUAL

CLASS-X
2024-2025
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DICOT STOMATA
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Expt no: 1 TEMPORARY MOUNT OF STOMATA

Aim: To prepare temporary mount of leaf peel, to observe stomata and to

differentiate dicot and monocot stomata.

Theory: In plants, physiological processes such as respiration and

photosynthesis involve exchange of gases between plants tissue and the external
atmosphere. This occurs through minute microscopic pores called stomata
(singular stoma) present in the leaf. Stoma is an elliptical pore with two kidney
shaped guard cells on either side. The guard cells have thin outer and thick inner
walls. When guard cells are turgid, the stoma opens and it closes when the
guard cells are flaccid.
The number, distribution and type of stomata vary in different plants. Within a
plant, the number and distribution may vary between the upper and lower
surfaces of leaf. However, the type of stomata remains the same in a particular
plant species. Stomata are absent or non- functional in submerged aquatic plants.
In this experiment we shall prepare the temporary mounts of leaf peels of dicot
and monocot plants to observe their stomata.
Materials required: Fresh leaves of dicot plants(such as Petunia, Dianthus,
Solanum) and a monocot plant ( such as lily, maize, grass), compound
microscope, slide, cover slip, needle, brush, a piece of blotting paper and a razor
blade.
Procedure: Remove a peel from the lower surface of a dicot leaf. This can be
easily done by folding or tearing the leaf and pulling out the thin transparent
peel. Leaf peels can also be obtained by carefully scratching the leaf surface
with a razor blade.
 Mount the peel on the slide in a drop of water and place a cover slip on it.
Avoid air bubbles. Blot the excess water from the slide.
 Focus the peel under the low power of compound microscope and
observe the stomata, guard cells and epidermal cells.
 Count the number of stomata and epidermal cells in the field of
microscopic without disturbing the slide.
 Observe and identify the contents of guard cells under high power.
 Move the slide and again count the number of stomata and epidermal
cells. Record the observations.
 Calculate the average number of stomata and epidermal cells in the field
of microscope.
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MONOCOT STOMATA
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 Draw the diagram of a stoma and label its parts.

 Repeat the process with peels removed from a stomata of other dicot and
monocot plants.

Observation: Tabulated

[Link] OBSERVATION DICOT MONOCOT

1. No. of stomata in the microscopic
field
2. No. of cells in the microscopic field

3. Shape of guard cells (bean shaped

seed)
4. No. of chloroplast in each guard cell

Results and Discussion: Thus temporary mount of leaf peels were prepared to
observe the stomata. Based on the observation, compared the characteristic of
dicots and monocots.
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EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT CO2 IS RELEASED DURING RESPIRATION

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Expt no: 2 RESPIRATION

Aim: To show the liberation of carbon dioxide gas during aerobic respiration.
Theory: Respiration is a catabolic process which involves the breakdown of food or complex
organic molecules into simpler products, with the release of energy. This process can take
place either in the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration) or in its absence (anaerobic
respiration). Most organisms that we see around us undergo aerobic respiration.
The overall reaction mechanism of aerobic respiration involves the oxidation of
carbohydrate and the subsequent production of CO2, H2O and energy in the form of
adenosine tri phosphate (ATP).

C6H12O6+ 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Yeast and certain microorganisms and cells of skeletal muscles in our body undergo
anaerobic respiration. In this experiment, we shall study the liberation of carbon dioxide gas
during aerobic respiration.
Apparatus and Materials Required: A conical flask(100 ml), a beaker( 250ml), a cork with
a hole, a glass tube bent at right angles at two places, a small test tube, KOH solution, thread,
a piece of thread, a measuring scale, coloured water, Vaseline and germinating seeds of gram
or pea.
Procedure:

 Take the conical flask and place some germinating gram or pea seeds in it.
 Insert the shorter end of the glass tube through the hole in the cork and fix it on the
conical flask.
 Before fixing the cork, hang a test tube containing KOH solution inside the conical
flask with the help of a thread.
 Take coloured water in the beaker and keep the longer end of the glass tube dipped
inside it.
 Make the conical flask airtight by applying Vaseline on its rim.
 Note the initial level of water in the tube.
 Observe and note the rise in the water level after an hour, without disturbing the
apparatus.

Observations: Observe the position of water level inside the delivery tube. Water level rises
up in the bent tube. Record the change in water level in the delivery tube.
Result: The rise in the level of water indicates that CO2 is produced by germinating seeds
during respiration. Actually, the germinating seeds respire and produce CO2, which is
absorbed by KOH solution. This creates a vacuum in the conical flask. The air present in the
bent glass tube moves into the conical flask. This pulls the water in the bent tube further up.
Precautions:
1. Keep the conical flask airtight.
2. Fix the shorter end of the glass tube in such a way that it does not touch the seeds.
3. Use freshly prepared KOH solution.
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BINARY FISSION IN AMOEBA

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Expt no: 3 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION – BINARY FISSION AND BUDDING

AIM:
To study a) Binary fission in amoeba b) Budding in yeast with the help of prepared
slides.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Permanent slides of amoeba showing binary fission and yeast budding and a
microscope.

THEORY:
 Reproduction in one of the basic characteristics of living organisms. It is essential for
an organism to produce more of its own kind. Reproduction may be either sexual or
asexual.
 The type of reproduction which takes place without gametes formation is called
asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction does not involve both male and female
gametes.
 Asexual reproduction is common in lower plants and animals. It is a process of rapid
multiplication in which the new organisms produced are identical to the parent.
 Asexual reproduction may be of various types like binary fission, regeneration, spore
formation budding etc.

PROCEDURE:
 Observe each of the permanent slides first under low power and then under high
power magnification of a compound microscope.
 Draw diagram and compare their features.

OBSERVATION:
Binary fission in Amoeba:
 In this type, two similar individuals are formed from a single parent.
 A mature amoebae cells are larger. Its nucleus elongates and divides into two
following the division of the cytoplasm.
 Thus two amoebae are formed.
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BUDDING IN YEAST

BUDDING IN HYDRA
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Budding in yeast:
 Here bulb like projection called buds arises from the parent body.
 Yeast cells are larger and oval in shape.
 One or more bulb like projection arises from the cell membrane.
 The nucleus divides and one of the daughter nucleus passes into the bud.
 The bud is finally separated from the parent body and into grows a new individual.

RESULT:
The prepared slides show asexual reproduction in which only one individual is
involved in producing new offsprings.

PRECAUTIONS:
 Focus the slide properly.
 Draw a diagram as seen under the microscope.
 Handle microscope carefully.
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EMBRYO OF A DICOT SEED

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Expt no: 4 EMBRYOLOGY

AIM:

To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red kidney
bean).

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

Pea, gram or red kidney beans, distilled water, glass jar and dissecting microscope.

THEORY:

 The plants have been classified on the basis of number of cotyledons into two
categories- monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Morphology of seed types is the only
criteria used for its categorisation.
 The basic difference between the monocots and dicots as their name suggests is the
presence of single and double cotyledons respectively. Most of the features of these
plants can be seen by naked eye which makes it easy to differentiate between them.
 Seeds differ in sizes, shape and colours. They may have different parts depending
upon the type of seed. A dicot seed has a tiny embryo tucked between the two halves
of the seed. The embryo is the young multicellular organism before it emerges from
the seed.
 The two halves of the seed are cotyledons or seed leaves that develop later. The
outermost covering of the seed is the seed coat.
 The part of the embryo that develops into a shoot is termed as plumule and the part of
embryo that develops into a root is termed as radicle.

PROCEDURE:

 Soak the beans in a jar of distilled water for 24 hours. Place the jar at a cool place.
 Then remove the covering of the seed coat of the bean and gently with a fingernail
open the round ends of the bean.
 Place the open bean under a dissecting microscope and observe the different parts.

OBSERVATION:

 The dicot embryo has two cotyledons. It has an embryonic root called radicle and an
embryonic shoot called plumule. The plumule has two main parts to which future
stem are attached to the cotyledon. The hypocotyl is the portion below the point of
attachment. The hypocotyl is connected to the radicle.

RESULT:
 Thus observed the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed