Human Anatomy,

McKinley & O'Loughlin

First Edition

Chapter 2 : The Cell: Basic Unit of Structure and Function

1

The Cell

Cells:

structural and functional units of all living organisms. building blocks of the human body. adult human body contains ~ 75 trillion cells. ~200 cell types in humans subcategories of most

Each cell type performs specific functions.

2-2

Common Characteristics of Cells

Perform the general functions necessary to sustain life:

Obtain nutrients and other materials from its surrounding fluids.

Dispose of wastes products

Fuel molecules, O2, building blocks, minerals,etc Urea (from nitrogen), CO2, metabolic waste Size and shape are related to function Mitosis: growth and repair Meiosis: gamete formation
2-3

Maintain shape and integrity

Cell division:

Study of Cells

Cytology: study of cells Microscopic anatomy

Individual cells observable by light microscopy Subcellular structures observable by electron microscopy.

TEM SEM

Unit of measure: micrometer (um)

RBC: 7-8um
2-4

Cells

Parts of a cell

Cell Membrane (or plasma membrane) Cytoplasm

Cytosol Organelles

Membranous Organelles Non-membranous Organelles

Inclusions

Nucleus

2-6

Plasma (Cell) Membrane

the outer, limiting barrier separates the internal contents of the cell from external materials.

2-7

Cytoplasm

general term for all cellular contents located between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.

2-8

Nucleus

control center of the cell controls protein synthesis

directs the functional and structural characteristics of the cell.

2-9

Plasma membrane: composition

Lipids

Phospholipids

Head: hydrophilic Tail: hydrophobic Form lipid bilayer

Cholesterol Glycolipids

Carbohydrate component Part of glycocalyx

2-10

11

Plasma membrane: composition

Protein

Integral membrane proteins Peripheral membrane proteins Some serve as enzymes, ion channels or receptors Glycoproteins

2-12

Plasma membrane: functions

Selectively permeable barrier

Nutrient in Waste out

Communication Intercellular connections Physical barrier

2-13

Transport Mechanisms

Passive Transport Active Transport Bulk Transport Solution= solvent (H2O)+ solute

2-14

Passive Transport

Movement of substances along a concentration gradient

[Hi] to [Low]

ATP is not required Types:

Simple Diffusion: solutes Facilitated Diffusion: solutes Bulk Filtration: solution Osmosis: solvent
2-15

Facilitated Diffusion

Requires the participation of specific transport proteins that help specific substances or molecules move across the plasma membrane. Carrier-mediated

2-16

Bulk Filtration

Involves the diffusion of both solvents and solutes together across the selectively permeable membrane. Pressure gradients

2-17

Osmosis

Involves the diffusion of a solvent (H2O), across a selectively permeable membrane. Can cause a volume change

2-18

Active Transport

Movement of a substance across a plasma membrane against a concentration gradient. Materials must be moved from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. requires cellular energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) uses transport proteins (carrier-mediated) ATP is continually synthesized by mitochondria

2-19

Ion Pumps

Active transport processes that move ions across the membrane are called ion pumps.

ion pumps allow a cell to maintain its internal concentrations of small molecules or ions

2-20

Bulk Transport - Exocytosis

Used by cells that secrete Usually movement of large molecules Movement out of the cell.

2-21

22

Bulk Transport - Endocytosis

process by which the cell acquires materials from the extracellular fluid: (3 Forms)

Phagocytosis:

Pinocytosis:

Cell forms pseudopodia engulfs a particle internalize it into a vacuole incorporation of droplets of extracellular fluid (solution) Taken into the cell in small vesicles receptors in the cell membrane Bind with specific molecules Invagination forms around them to create a cytoplasmic vesicle
2-23

Receptor-mediated endocytosis:

24

25

Cytoplasm: cytosol

Matrix; intracellular material Different in different cell Mostly water

2-26

Cytoplasm: Organelles

Complex, organized structures Have unique, characteristic shapes. Each type performs a different function for the cell. Are essential for normal cellular structure and activities.

2-27

Membranous Organelles

Include:

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

Ribosomes Make protein for export Peroxisomes made here Lipids and carbohydrates Detoxification

Smooth Endoplamic Reticulum (SER)

2-28

29

30

Membranous Organelles

Peroxisomes

Vesicles formed from RER Use oxygen to detoxify Mediated by specific enzymes Most abundant in liver

2-31

32

Membranous Organelles

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, stores and sorts material from RER Receiving region (cis-face) Shipping region (trans-face) Autophagy: removal of old organelles Autolysis: destruction of the cell
2-33

Produces Lysosomes

34

35

36

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are organelles with a double membrane. Produce large amounts of ATP. Are called the powerhouses of the cell.

2-37

38

Non-Membranous Organelles

Not made of a membrane. Usually made of protein Include:

Ribosomes: free and fixed Cytoskeleton

Microfilaments Intermediate fibers microtubules centrioles

2-39

Centrosome

Ribosomes

Small, dense granules

Protein RNA

Site of protein synthesis. Each ribosome has a small and a large subunit.

small subunit is about one-half the size of the large subunit.

2-40

41

The Cytoskeleton

Made of filamentous proteins Helps give the cell its shape Coordinates cellular movements. Three categories:

microfilaments intermediate filaments microtubules

2-42

43

Non-membranous Organelles

Centrioles and the centrosome

Centrosome

Area close to the nucleus Organization site for microtubules In the centrosome Perpendicular to each other 9 sets of microtubule triplets Important in cell division (spindle)
2-44

Centrioles (exist as a pair)

45

Microvilli, Cilia and Flagella

Appendages extending from the surface of some cells.

Microvilli:

short, cytoplasmic extensions For absorption usually occur in large numbers work together to move materials or fluids along the surface of a cell.

Cilia:

Flagella:

longer than cilia, and usually occur as single appendages. Move the cell

2-46

47

The Nucleus

Control center of cellular activities. Usually, it is the largest structure within the cell Appears as a single spherical or oval structure.

2-48

49

The Nucleus

Enclosed by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope:

controls the entry and exit of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

2-50

Nucleolus

The cell nucleus may contain one or more nucleoli. Nucleoli:

are responsible for making the small and the large subunits of ribosomes.

2-51

Chromatin and DNA

DNA is the genetic material housed within the nucleus.

DNA is a polymer of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base) Is a double helix. Chromatin:

Strands of DNA and histone proteins

Euchromatin: uncoiled; active Heterochromatin: coiled. inactive

2-52

53

Insert Figure 2.18

54

Chromosome

The chromosome is the most organized level of genetic material. Each chromosome contains a single, long molecule of DNA and associated proteins. Chromosomes become visible only when the cell is dividing.
2-55

The Cell Cycle

The life cycle of the cell is called the cell cycle. New cells must be made continuously in order for an organism to grow and replace its damaged cells.

2-56

57

Mitosis and Meiosis

There are two types of cell division. Mitosis: is the cell division process that takes place in somatic cells. Meiosis: is the cell division process that takes place in gonads to produce gametes.

2-58

Mitosis

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

2-59

The Stages of Mitosis

Prophase the first and longest stage of mitosis

Early prophase chromatin threads condense into chromosomes

Chromosomes are made up of two threads called chromatids Chromatids are held together by the centromere Centriole pairs separate from one another The mitotic spindle forms

2-60

The Stages of Mitosis

Prophase (continued)

Late prophase centrioles continue moving away from each other

Nuclear membrane fragments

2-61

Early Prophase and Late Prophase

Figure 2.21

2-62

The Stages of Mitosis

Metaphase the second stage of mitosis

Chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell

Centromeres are aligned along the equator

Anaphase the third and shortest stage of mitosis

Centromeres of chromosomes split

2-63

Metaphase and Anaphase

Figure 2.21

2-64

The Stages of Mitosis

Telophase begins as chromosomal movement stops

Chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell uncoil Resume their thread-like extended-chromatin form A new nuclear membrane forms

Cytokinesis completes the division of the cell into two daughter cells
2-65

Telephase and Cytokinesis

Figure 2.21

2-66

Tumor

Normal tissue development exhibits a balance between cell division and cell death. If this balance is upset and cells multiply faster than they die, abnormal growth results in a new cell mass that is called a neoplasm, or tumor.
2-67

Cancer

Benign neoplasms usually grow slowly and are confined within a connective tissue capsule. Cells within these tumors dedifferentiatethat is, they revert to a less specialized state, and cause an increase in their own vascular supply to support their growth. These tumors are usually not lethal, but they have the potential to become life-threatening if they compress brain tissue, nerves, blood vessels, or airways.
2-68

Cancer

Cancer is the general term used to describe a group of diseases characterized by various types of malignant neoplasms.

unencapsulated contain cells that dedifferentiate increase their vascular supply grow rapidly spread easily to other organs by way of the blood or lymph (metastasis)
2-69

Cancer

Cancer cells lose control of their cell cycle.

they divide too frequently and grow out of control cancer cells lose contact inhibition

they overgrow one another and lack the ability to stop growing and dividing when they crowd other cells

2-70

Cancer Cells

Exhibit dedifferentiation and revert to an earlier, less specialized developmental state. Produce chemicals that cause local blood vessel formation resulting in increased blood vessels in the developing tumor (angiogenesis). Have the ability to squeeze into any space (invasiveness) permitting them to leave their place of origin and travel elsewhere in the body. Acquire the ability to metastasizethat is, spread to other organs in the body.

2-71