FUNDAMENTALS OF NOISE

Dr. ASHISH K DARPE

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
IIT DELHI

Sound is a sensation of acoustic waves (disturbance/pressure

fluctuations setup in a medium)

Unpleasant, unwanted, disturbing sound is generally treated

as Noise and is a highly subjective feeling

 Sound is a disturbance that propagates through a medium

having properties of inertia ( mass ) and elasticity. The
medium by which the audible waves are transmitted is air.
Basically sound propagation is simply the molecular
transfer of motional energy. Hence it cannot pass through
vacuum.

Guess how much is particle

displacement??
8e-3nm to 0.1mm

Frequency: Number of pressure

cycles / time
also called pitch of sound (in Hz)

The disturbance gradually diminishes as it travels

outwards since the initial amount of energy is
gradually spreading over a wider area. If the
disturbance is confined to one dimension ( tube / thin
rod), it does not diminish as it travels ( except loses
at the walls of the tube )

Speed of Sound
The rate at which the disturbance (sound wave) travels
Property of the medium

P0
c
0

RT
c
M

Alternatively,

c Speed of sound

P0, 0 - Pressure and Density

- Ratio of specific heats

R Universal Gas Constant

T Temperature in 0K M Molecular weight

T
c c0 1 c
273

1
2

c25 343.5m / s

c40 355m / s

Speed of Light: 299,792,458 m/s

Speed of sound 344 m/s

Sound Measurement
Provides definite quantities that describe and rate
sound
Permit precise, scientific analysis of annoying
sound (objective means for comparison)
Help estimate Damage to Hearing
Powerful diagnostic tool for noise reduction
program: Airports, Factories, Homes, Recording
studios, Highways, etc.

Quantifying Sound
Acoustic Variables: Pressure and Particle Velocity
Root Mean Square Value (RMS) of Sound Pressure
Mean energy associated with sound waves is its
fundamental feature
energy is proportional to square of amplitude
1

2
p [ p (t )] dt
T 0

p 0.707a

1
2

RANGE OF PRESSURE
Range of RMS pressure fluctuations that a human ear can
detect extends from
0.00002 N/m2 (threshold of hearing)
to
20 N/m2

(sensation of pain)

1000000 times larger

Atmospheric Pressure is 105N/m2

so the peak pressure associated with loudest sound
is 3500 times smaller than atm.pressure
The large range of associated pressure is one of the reasons we
need alternate scale

dB SCALE
Human ear responded logarithmically to power difference
Alexander Graham Bell
invented a unit Bel to measure the ability of people to hear
Power Ratio of 2 = dB of 3
Power Ratio of 10 = dB of 10
Power Ratio of 100 = dB of 20
In acoustics, multiplication by a given factor is encountered most
W1=W2*n
So, Log10W1= Log10W2 + Log10n
Thus, if the two powers differ by a factor of 10 (n=10), the
difference between the Log values of two power quantities is 1Bel

Decibel
10Log10W1= 10Log10W2 + 10Log10n

to avoid fractions

Now we have above quantities in deciBel,

10dB=1Bel

deciBels are thus another way of expressing ratios

Electrical
Power

V2
W
R

Sound
Power

P2
W
r
r - acoustic impedance

20Log10V1= 20Log10V2 + 20Log10n(1/2)

20Log10P1= 20Log10P2 + 20Log10n(1/2)

Sound Pressure Level

20Log10P1= 20Log10P2 + 20Log10n(1/2)
20Log10(P1/P2) = 20Log10n(1/2)

n: Ratio of sound powers

20Log10n(1/2) is still in deciBel, defined as Sound Pressure Level

Sound pressure level is always relative to a reference
In acoustics, the reference pressure P2=2e-5 N/m2 or 20Pa (RMS)
SPL=20Log10(P1/2e-5)

P1 is RMS pressure

Sound Pressure Level

Corresponding to audio range of Sound Pressure
2e-5 N/m2

- 0 dB

20 N/m2

- 120 dB

Normal SPL encountered are between 35 dB to 90 dB

For underwater acoustics different reference pressure is used

Pref = 0.1 N/m2

It is customary to specify SPL as

52dB re 20Pa

Sound Intensity

Sound Intensity
A plane progressive sound wave traveling in a medium (say
along a tube) contains energy and
rate of transfer of energy per unit cross-sectional area is
defined as Sound Intensity
1
I
T

P2
I
0c

p u dt
0

Hold true also for spherical

waves far away from source

p12 /( 0c)
p1
SPL 20 Log10
dB 10 Log10
dB
2
2e 5
(2e 5) /( 0c)
I
1012
I
1012
SPL 10 Log10 12
dB 10 Log10
10 Log10
2
10 (2e 5) /( 0c)
I ref
(2e 5) 2 /( 0c)
IL 10 Log10

I
I ref

For air, 0c 415Ns/m3

so that

SPL IL 0.16 dB

COMBINATION OF SEVERAL SOURCES

Total Intensity produced by several sources
IT=I1+ I2+ I3+
Usually, intensity levels are known (L1, L2,)

I1
L1 10 Log 12
10

IT
LT 10 Log 12
10

LT 10 Log 10

L1
10

L
2
10

10

L3

10

10

...

COMBINATIONS OF SOURCES
If intensity levels of each of the N sources is same,

L1
10

LT 10 Log N 10

LT 10 LogN L1

Thus for 2 identical sources, total Intensity Level is 10Log2

i.e., 3dB greater than the level of the single source
For 2 sources of different intensities: L1 and L2
L1=60dB, L2=65.5dB
LT=66.5dB
L1=80dB, L2=82dB
LT=84dB

FREQUENCY & FREQUENCY BANDS

Frequency of sound ---- as important as its level
Sensitivity of ear
Sound insulation of a wall
Attenuation of silencer

all vary with freq.

<20Hz

20Hz to 20000Hz

> 20000Hz

Infrasonic

Audio Range

Ultrasonic

Frequency Composition of Sound

Pure tone

Musical
Instrument

For multiple frequency composition sound, frequency spectrum is

obtained through Fourier analysis

Complex Noise Pattern

Amplitude (dB)

produced by exhaust of Jet Engine, water at base of

Niagara Falls, hiss of air/steam jets, etc
A1

f1

Frequency (Hz)

No discrete tones, infinite frequencies

Better to group them in frequency bands total strength in
each band gives measure of sound
Octave Bands commonly used (Octave: Halving / doubling)

OCTAVE BANDS
1=

1x2=2
2x2=4
4x2=8

For convenience Internationally accepted ratio is

1:1000
(IEC Recommendation 225)
Center frequency of one octave band is 1000Hz

16x2=32

Other center frequencies are obtained by continuously

dividing/multiplying by 103/10 starting at 1000Hz

32x2=64

Next lower center frequency = 1000/ 103/10 500Hz

64x2=128

Next higher center frequency = 1000*103/10 2000Hz

8x2=16

128x2=256
256x2=512
512x2=1024

fc

fU f L

10 bands(Octaves)

International Electrotechnical Commission

Octave Filters

Instruments for
analysing Noise

Constant Bandwidth Devices

Proportional Bandwidth Devices

fU
2
fL

fU
2n
fL
n=1 for octave,
n=3 for 1/3rd octave

fc

fU f L

Absolute Bandwidth = fU - fL = fL
% Relative Bandwidth = (fU-fL / fc) = 70.7%

fU
If we divide each octave into three
21/ 3
geometrically equal subsections, i.e., f L

These bands are thus called 1/3rd octave bands with

% relative bandwidth of 23.1%
For 1/10 Octave filters,
th

fU
21/10 % relative bandwidth of 5.1%
fL

Octave and 1/3rd Octave

band filters
mostly to analyse relatively
smooth varying spectra

If tones are present,

1/10th Octave or Narrow-band
filter be used

INTENSITY SPECTRAL DENSITY

Acoustic Intensity for most sound
is non-uniformly distributed over time and frequency

Intensity

Convenient to describe the distribution through spectral density

I

f1

I
f
f2

I df
f1

f2

Frequency (Hz)

is the intensity within the frequency band f=1Hz

For most noise, the instantaneous spectral density
(t) is a time varying quantity, so that in this
expression is average value taken over a suitable
period so that =< (t)>

So, many acoustic filters & meters have both fast (1/8s) and slow (1s)
integration times (For impulsive sounds some sound meters have I
characteristics with 35ms time constant)

Intensity Spectrum Level (ISL)

DeciBel measure of is the Intensity Spectrum Level (ISL)
.1Hz
ISL 10 log
I ref

If the intensity is constant over the frequency

bandwidth w (= f2- f1),
then total intensity is just

I= w and

I 1Hz.

and Intensity Level for the band is

IL ISL 10 log w
If the ISL has variation within the frequency band (w),
each band is subdivided into smaller bands so that in each band ISL
changes by no more than 1-2dB

w
1Hz

IL is calculated and converted to Intensities Ii and then total

intensity level ILtotal is

ILi ISLi 10 log wi

ILtotal 10 log

I
i i

I ref

as SPL and IL are numerically same, SPL PSL 10 log w

ILtotal 10 log

I
i i

I ref

Can be
written as

ILtotal 10 log10

10
i

ILi
10

Thus, when intensity level in each band is known, total intensity level can be estimated
PSL (Pressure Spectrum Level) is defined over a 1Hz interval so the SPL of a tone is same as its PSL

Combining Band Levels and Tones

SPL = PSL + 10 log w

For pure tones, PSL = SPL
so, two SPL of the tones is 63 & 60 dB
For the broadband noise,
SPL = PSL + 10 log w
= PSL + 10 log 100
SPL = 60 dB
Thus the overall band level
= Band level of broadband noise + Level of tones
= 60 + 63 + 60 = 64.7 + 60
66 dB

Sound Power
Intensity : Average Rate of energy transfer per unit area
W
I
4 r 2

W/m

Sound Power Level:

p2
W 4 r I 4 r
Watt
0c
2

W
SWL 10 log10
dB
Wref
Reference Power Wref =10-12 Watt

Peak Power output:

output
Female Voice 0.002W,
Male Voice 0.004W,
Soft whisper 10-9W, An average shout 0.001W Large
Orchestra 10-70W, Large Jet at Takeoff 100,000W
15,000,000 speakers speaking simultaneously generate 1HP

Recap
Sound Measurement Amplitude/Frequency
Sound Pressure, Intensity, Power, ISL, PSL

Radiation from Source

Point Source (Monopole)

2
p
W 4 r 2 I 4 r 2
Watt
0c

Radiates sound waves equally in all directions (spherical radiation)

W: is acoustic power output of the source;
power must be distributed equally over spherical surface area

W 1
W
1

10
log
10
2
4 1012 r 2
4 r I ref

IL 10 log10
IL 10 log10

W
20 log10 r
12
4 10

Constant term

Depends on distance
from source

Inverse Square Law

When distance doubles (r=2r0) ; 20log 2 + 20log r0 means 6dB difference in the Sound Intensity Level

If the point source is placed on ground,

it radiates over a hemisphere,
the intensity is then doubled and

W 1
2
2 r I ref

IL 10 log10
IL 10 log10

W
20 log10 r
12
2 10

Line Source
(Long trains, steady stream of traffic, long straight run of pipeline)
If the source is located on ground,
and has acoustic power output of
W per unit length
radiating over half the cylinder
Intensity at radius r,

W
I
r

W
IL 10 log10
10 log10 r
12
10
When distance doubles; 10log 2 + 10log r means 3dB difference in the Sound Intensity Level

VALIDITY OF POINT SOURCE

In free field condition,
Any source with its characteristic dimension small compared to
the wavelength of the sound generated is considered a point
source
Alternatively a source is considered point source if the receiver is
at large distance away from the source

Some small sources do not radiate sound equally in all directions

Directivity of the source must be taken into account to calculate
level from the source power

DIRECTIVITY OF SOUND SOURCE

Sound sources whose dimensions are small compared to the wavelength of
the sound they are radiating are generally omni-directional;
otherwise when dimensions are large in comparison, they are directional

Sound Intensity at an angle and at distance r from

a directional source radiating sound power W
Q
Sound Intensity at distance r from a omni - directional
source radiating the same sound power W

Directivity Factor & Directivity Index

Directivity Factor

p2

I
Q
2
Is
pS

Directivity Index

DI 10 log10 Q
thus
DI L p L pS

4r 2 I

Rigid boundaries force an omni-directional source to radiate sound in preferential direction

EFFECT OF HARD REFLECTING GROUND

Radiated Sound Power of the source can be affected by a
rigid, reflecting planes
Strength and vibrational velocity of the source does not
change but the hard reflecting plane produces double the
pressure and four-fold increase in sound intensity compared to
monopole (point spherical source)
If source is sufficiently above the ground this effect is reduced

I=0
Uniform
sound
energy
density
Free Field Condition

Diffuse Field

MWL Lab, KTH Sweden

Finding sound power (ISO 3745)

Measurements made in semi-reverberant and free field conditions

are in error of 2dB

Noise Mapping

Noise Contours

Environmental
Effects
Wind Gradient
Hot Sunny
Day
Velocity Gradient
(-)

Temperature Gradient
Cool Night
Wind & Temp effects tend to
cancel out
Increase or decrease of 5-6dB

Environmental Effects

HUMAN PERCEPTION

The Human Ear

Outer Ear: Pinna and auditory canal
concentrate pressure on to drum
Middle Ear: Eardrum, Small Bones
connecting eardrum to inner ear
Inner Ear: Filled with liquid, cochlea
with basilar membrane respond to
stimulus of eardrum with the help of
thousands of tiny, highly sensitive hair
cells, different portions responding
different frequencies of sound.
The movement of hair cells is
conveyed as sensation of sound to the
brain through nerve impulses
Masking takes place at the membrane;
Higher frequencies are masked by
lower ones, degree depends on
freq.difference and relative
magnitudes of the two sounds

SOUND BITS
Unless there is a 3 dB difference in SPL, human beings can
not distinguish the difference in the sound
Sound is perceived as doubled in its loudness when there is
10dB difference in the SPL.
(Remember 6dB change represents doubling of sound pressure!!)

Ear is not equally sensitive at all frequencies:

highly sensitive at frequencies between 2kHz to 5kHz
less at other freq.
This sensitivity dependence on frequency is also dependent
on SPL!!!!

RESPONSE OF HUMAN EAR

Loudness Level
(Phon)
Equal to numerical
value of SPL at
1000Hz
0Phon: threshold of
hearing
Loudness Level
(Phon) useful for
comparing two
different frequencies
for equal loudness
But, 60Phon is still
not twice as loud as
30Phon

Equal Loudness Contours for pure tones,

Free Field conditions

Doubling of loudness
corresponds to increase
of 10Phon

Weighting Characteristics

A-weighting: 40Phon equal loudness level contour

C-weighting: 90Phon equal loudness level contour
D-weighting for Aircraft Noise

BASIC SOUND LEVEL METER

LOUDNESS INDEX
Direct relationship between
Loudness Level P (Phons) and
Loudness Index S (Sones)

S 2

P 40
10

8 Sones is twice as loud as

4 Sones

Hearing Damage Potential to sound energy

depends on its

level & duration of exposure

Equivalent Continuous Sound Level (Leq)

Lj

Leq 10 Log10

t 10
j 1

10

dB

tj : Fraction of total time

duration for which SPL of
Lj was measured
Total time interval
considered is divided in N
parts
with each part has constant
SPL of Lj

70
1 100

7
10
10
Leq 10 Log10 10 10 91dB
8
8

Integrating Sound Level Meter for randomly varying sound

e.g., 60sec Leq
Sound Exposure Level (SEL)
Constant level acting for 1sec
that has the same acoustic
energy as the original sound

Vehicle passing by;

Aircraft flying over

Noise Dose Meters display

Noise Exposure Measurements

Regulations:
Basis of 90dB(A) for 8hr a day.
ISO(1999): Increase in SPL
from 90 to 93dB(A) must
reduce time of exposure from 8
to 4 hours
OSHA: with every 5dB(A)
increase, reduce exposure by
half
Occupational Safety and Health Administration

Noise Rating Curves (ISO R 1996)

Level of
Noise
Annoyance

NR78

Errors of the order of 6dB around 400Hz due to reflections

Sources:
Vibration and Noise for Engineers, K Pujara
Fundamentals of Acoustics, Kinsler and Frey
Fundamentals of Noise and Vibration Analysis for
Engineers, M Norton and D Karczub
Introduction to Acoustics, R D Ford
Measuring Sound, B&K Application Notes
Sound Intensity, B&K Application Notes
Basic Concepts of Sound, B&K Application Notes

TRANSFORMER NOISE CASE STUDY

SOURCES
The primary source of acoustic noise generation in a transformer is the
periodic mechanical deformation of the transformer core under the
influence of fluctuating electromagnetic flux associated with these parts.
The physical phenomena associated with this tonal noise generation can be
classified as follows:

vibration of the core

core laminations strike against each

other due to residual gaps between
laminations

 The material of a transformer core exhibits magnetostrictive

properties. The vibration of the core is due to its
magnetostrictive strain varying at twice the frequency of the
alternating magnetic flux. The frequencies of the magnetic
flux are equal to the power system supply frequency and its
harmonics.
When there are residual gaps between laminations of the core,
the periodic magneto-motive force may cause the core
laminations to strike against each other and produce noise.
Also, the periodic mutual forces between the current-carrying
coil windings can induce vibrations.

A core structure is a complicated stack of Si-Fe alloy laminations clamped

together at suitable points. Clamping is essential to hold together the laminations.
The clamping arrangement also influences the dynamic behaviour of a core.
As laminations do not have good matching flat surfaces and as they are not
clamped together over an entire surface area, hence residual gaps between the
laminations are unavoidable. Magneto-motive forces acting across these air gaps
could set relative transverse motions between the laminations also with clamped
constraint points in place.
Higher the core loss (eddy current loss, hysterisis, copper loss) greater the noise
level.

Noise level increases with

increasing overlap length.

Figure: Core overlap region

METHODS

By changing the conventional grain-oriented (grade M4) material of core

with any of high-permeability (Grade MOH) and laser-scribed (grade ZDKH)
material can reduce noise 2-4db because higher-grade materials have
lower magnetostriction.

A method of controlling noise is to construct a wall with high sound absorbing

bricks.

The most effective way to reduce noise is varnishing or using adhesive

material inside transformer tank (Viscoelastic materials)
Enclosing transformer inside an enclosure which uses two thin plates separated by
viscous material.

The noise hits inner plate and energy is damped out by viscous material so that outer one
does not vibrate.

This may change an efficiently radiating

vibration shape into an ineffectively radiating
shape resulting in a lower sound radiation ratio.

Active noise control (ANC):

Decentralized ANC can be implemented. In this transformer tank surface is divided

into number of elements. For each element unit consist of micro phone located in
front of loud speaker delivers error signal, this signal is fed to controller which drives
loud speaker is attached. An experimentation of decentralized active noise control
on power transformer is shown in figure 5 and Configuration of the control simulation
is shown in figure 6.

Figure 5: experimentation of decentralized active noise

control on power transformer

Figure6: Configuration of the control simulation.

Thanks !!