Chapter 4

Tissue: The living fabric

 What is a tissue?
Groups of cells that are similar in structure
and perform a common or related function

What is Histology?
The study of tissues using a microscope

Text page 116, 117

The 4 tissues of the body are:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous

Text page 116, 117

Nervous tissue: Internal communication using
electrical signals
Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

Muscle tissue: Contracts to cause movement

Muscles attached to bones (skeletal)
Muscles of heart (cardiac)
Muscles of walls of hollow organs (smooth)
Epithelial tissue: Covering and lining tissue
Forms boundaries between different environments.
Skin surface (epidermis)
Lining of GI tract organs and other hollow organs

Connective tissue: Supports, protects, binds

other tissues together
Bones
Tendons
Fat and other soft padding tissue
Blood
Text page 116, 117
Epithelial tissue

Text page 118-124

 Epithelial Tissue
Covers the outer and inner surfaces of the body
Skin is epithelium
Lines hollow organs (stomach, bladder) and tubes
(blood vessels, intestines, trachea, urethra) within
the body
Forms glands

Functions:
Protection
Absorption
Filtration
Excretion
Secretion Text page 118
 Special characteristics of
epithelium
1. Polarity
2. Specialized contacts between cells
3. Supported by connective tissue
4. Avascular but innervated
5. Ability to regenerate

Text page 118, 119

 Epithelia exhibit Polarity
Regions near the outward facing surface (apical) are different
than internal regions (basal) near the basement membrane

Apical

Basal Text page 118, 119

Some epithelial cells have cilia (tiny hairs) or mucus on their
apical surfaces:

Some epithelial cells have microvilli on their apical surfaces to

increase surface area

Text page 118, 119

 Basal attachment
Epithelial cells
are resting on a
basement
membrane
Basement
membrane glues
epithelium onto
the underlying
connective
tissue
Text page 118, 119
Specialized contacts between cells
Tight Junctions
Cells are held tightly together
Nothing can pass between the cells

Gap Junctions
Held together by proteins which form a
channel (gap)
Ions and other signals can pass through
the channels~communication
Allow cells to work as a unit

Desmosomes
Extremely strong connection ties cells
together
Allows pulling, bending and twisting

Text page 118, 119

 Avascular but innervated
Avascular means epithelium
has NO blood vessels

Instead epithelial cells get

their nutrients from blood
vessels in the connective
tissue under the basement
membrane

Epithelia are innervated

Sensory neurons are present
Can sense pain, heat, cold
and pressure

Text page 118, 119

 Epithelia are supported by
connective tissue
Epithelial cells rest on the
basement membrane

Epithelium

Nutrients are provided to the

epithelial sheet from blood
vessels in the connective Connective tissue
tissue below the basement
membrane
Text page 118, 119
 Regeneration Text page 118, 119

Epithelial cells have a high regenerative

capacity
Some epithelia are exposed to friction so
the cells on the surface rub off
The epithelium has to be able to replace
these cells immediately
Stem cells copy by mitosis to replace
damaged cells
As long as epithelial cells receive
adequate nutrition from the connective
tissue below, they can regenerate
 Regeneration of epithelial cells

Old dead cells flake

off and are replaced

Stem cells copy by mitosis

Epithelium

Connective tissue
 Classifying epithelia
Epithelial tissues are given
two names according to
number of cell layers and
the cell shape
Text page 119
 Number of cell layers:

Simple epithelium Stratified epithelium

One layer of cells resting More than one layer of cells on a
basement membrane resting on a basement membrane

Found where absorption or Found where a thick protective

secretion occur coat is necessary

Text page 119

 Different shapes
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

Flattened cells Cells have similar Cells are tall

height, width and and narrow and depth the
Nucleus is flattened
nucleus is positioned in
the basal portion
Nucleus is round

Text page 119

Classification of Epithelia

Text page 119

To classify the epithelium first state the number of layers
then the cell shape
Specific Examples: Text page 119

In stratified
epithelium
the cell
shape part
of the name
comes from
the top
(apical) layer
only!
Types of simple epithelia

One layer of cells resting on

basement membrane

Text page 119-122

 Simple Squamous Epithelia
Allows absorption and secretion
blood vessels, alveoli (lungs)
Covering membranes visceral and parietal
Peritoneal (GI), pleural (lungs), pericardial (heart)
Text page 119-122
Gas exchange in the lungs is facilitated
by simple squamous epithelium

Text page 119-122

 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Single layer of cube shaped cells
Round nucleus
Functions in secretion and absorption
Found in kidney tubules

Text page 119-122

 Simple Columnar Epithelia
Single layer of columnar shaped cells Text page 119-122

Found in digestive tract

Functions:
Absorption In intestines. Cells have microvilli
Secretions Goblet cells secrete mucus
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelia
Appears to be layered but every cell is in contact
with basement membrane
Hence it is kind of (pseudo) stratified
Found in respiratory tract
Specialized with goblet cells and cilia

Text page 119-122

 Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium

Text page 119-122

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Cilia

Basem
ent membr
ane
Types of stratified epithelia

Many layers of cells

Text page 122-124

 Stratified Squamous Epithelia
Many layers of cells provide protection against
stresses of external environment
Found covering (skin) and lining (mouth, throat,
esophagus, rectum, anus, vagina)
In skin, Keratin proteins add strength and water
resistance Text page 122-124
 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelia
Two or more layers of cells
Outer (apical) layer is cuboidal
Rare
Found in ducts of sweat glands
Text page 122-124
Found in mammary glands
 Stratified Columnar Epithelia
Many layers of cells
Outer (apical) layer is columnar
Found in
Pharynx, male urethra
Text page 122-124
 Transitional Epithelium
Many layers of cells (stratified)
Found in bladder
Shape of cells changes (transitions)
depending on whether bladder is empty or
full Text page 122-124
Glands are made of
epithelium
So we will study them here

Text page 124-126

 What is a gland?
A gland is one or more cells which make
and secrete a product
Example secretions:
Sweat
Saliva
Mucus
Hormones

Text page 124-126

There are two types of Glands
Exocrine glands
Secrete through ducts onto the surface of the
gland
Secretion works right there

Endocrine glands
Release hormones into blood stream
Ductless
Secretion (hormone) has effects in many
areas of the body
Text page 124-126
Secretion works right here Secretion works elsewhere

Exocrine gland Ductless

with duct Endocrine gland

Text page 124-126

 Classes of glands
Text page 124-126

Endocrine Exocrine
Structure Secrete the product Secrete products
into the blood onto body surface
either directly or by
Hormones a duct

Secretions Insulin Sweat

Thyroid hormone Tears
Calcitonin Sebum
Estrogen, Saliva
Testosterone Digestive enzymes
Oxytocin Bile
Mucus
 Glands can be
Unicellular
Individual secretory cells
Only example = Goblet cells
Mucous secreting cells scattered amongst other
epithelial cells

Multicellular
Many cells make up a gland
Have two parts: secretory unit and duct
Classified according to structure
What is the shape of the secretory unit?
How many ducts does it have?
Text page 124-126
 Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Classified by number of ducts and shape of secretory unit
How many ducts does it have? What is the shape of the
secretory unit?
Ducts Secretory unit
(transport product to surface) (produce secretion)

Simple
1 duct Tubular

Compound Alveolar
Many ducts
(branched)

Text page 124-126

 Examples: Parotid salivary gland Intestinal glands

Simple alveolar ? Compound?alveolar Simple tubular

Sweat glands Salivary glands

Simple coiled
Compound
Tubular
Tubuloalveolar Text page 124-126
 Classification of glands by
function
Glands are classified based on the method used
by secretory cells to release their product

Text page 124-126

 Merocrine glands
Merocrine glands release their products by
exocytosis
Cell is not harmed by secretion of product
Most glands are in this category

Pancreatic glands
Sweat glands
Saliva glands

Merocrine Gland secretes by exocytosis

Text page 124-126
Holocrine glands release their product when the cell ruptures
and dies
Oil glands of skin

Apocrine glands accumulate their product beneath the free

(apical) surface and release their product when the apex pinches
off
Colostrum breast
milk in humans

Tracking scents
in dogs and
other animals

Text page 124-126

 Connective tissue

The structural framework for other tissues

Text page 127-135

 Connective tissue functions

Transports

Protects

Fills spaces and

sticks things
together Stores energy
Insulates
 Connective Tissue Functions
Binding and supporting other tissues
Protecting delicate organs (bone)al
Protect the body from microorganisms (blood and
lymph) lamina)
Storing energy reserves (fat)
Insulating the body against cold (fat)
Transporting fluids and dissolved materials (blood)

Text page 127

Classification of Connective Tissues

Next semester!

Text page 127

 Special characteristics of
connective tissue
Common origin
All connective tissues arise from the same
stem cells in an embryonic connective tissue
called mesenchyme
Degrees of vascularity
Some connective tissues are well vascularized
while others have no blood vessels
Abundance of extracellular matrix
Connective tissue has few cells but an
abundance of extracellular matrix Text page 127
 Structure of Connective Tissues
Connective tissues are made of:

Extracellular matrix
Ground substance
The filler fluid around the fibers and cells
Fibers
Collagen
Elastic
Reticular

Specialized cells
Various cells depending on type

Text page 127

Text page 127
 Connective Tissue Fibers
Three types of fiber
Collagen fibers
Most common fibers
Long, straight, and unbranched
Strong and flexible (NOT ELASTIC)
Resists force well in 1 direction
e.g., found in tendons and ligaments
Elastic fibers
protein (elastin) capable of being stretched and returning back to
original position (elastic recoil)
branched and wavy
e.g., found in skin, lungs, blood vessels
Reticular fibers
Web-like network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
Stabilizes cells and structures
e.g. holds cells together in spleen, liver
Text page 127
Naming cells which generate and
maintain connective tissues
Where is it found? + What does it do?
Connective tissue Blast = Build
fibro
Cartilage Cyte = maintain
chondro
Bone
osteo

Text page 128

 Cells
Blasts create NEW connective tissue
They can manufacture and secrete the fibers and ground
substance
Blasts mature, become less active and turn into cytes
Cytes only maintain the matrix, they cant add to it
Cytes can revert back to blasts if necessary to rebuild
matrix
Blast Produces new matrix Cyte- Maintains existing matrix

Fibroblast Fibrocyte
Chondroblast Chondrocyte
Osteoblast Osteocyte

Text page 128

 Other cells of connective tissue
Adipocytes Fat cells which store energy

Immune cells (All white blood cells)

Mast cells release histamine and heparin stimulate
local inflammation
Lymphocytes defend the body respond to damage by
releasing antibodies
Macrophages phagocytic cells which can eat foreign
matter or pathogens
Neutrophils and eosinophils- phagocytic cells which
activate in response to injury/infection

Text page 128

 The Cells and Fibers of
Connective Tissue Proper

Text page 128

A look at each connective
tissue type

Text page 129-135

Loose connective tissues

More ground substance

Less fibers

Text page 129-130

 Loose Connective Tissues
More ground substance, less fibers
Fibers are loosely organized

Types
Embryonic mesenchyme
Areolar tissue
Adipose tissue
Reticular tissue

Text page 129-130

 Embryonic Mesenchyme
Mesenchyme cells
are the embryonic
stem cells which
give rise to all other
connective tissues
Scattered
mesenchyme cells
are found
throughout adult
connective tissue to
do tissue repair Text page 129-130
 Areolar Tissue Text page 129-130

Least specialized
Loosely organized
fibers
All 3 fibers present
Under every epithelium
Functions
Supports and binds
Hold body fluids
Protects against
infection
Store nutrients as fat
 Adipose Tissue Text page 129-130

Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)

Functions
Nutrient (energy) storage
Provides padding
Shock absorber
Insulator
 Reticular Tissue
Web-like reticular fibers throughout
Works like a net to hold cells together
Found in spleen, liver, lymph nodes and bone
marrow
Text page 129-130
Dense connective tissues

More fibers
Less ground substance

Text page 130-133

 Dense Connective Tissues
Tightly packed fibers
High numbers of collagen or elastic fibers

Types
Dense regular connective tissue
Dense irregular connective tissue
Elastic connective tissue

Text page 130-133

 Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Collagen fibers are lined up in parallel
rows and packed tightly
Very strong in one direction ONLY
Ligaments tie bone to bone
Tendons tie muscle to bone Text page 130-133
 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Interwoven networks of collagen fibers in many
different directions
Layered in dermis of skin
Around cartilages (perichondrium)
Around bones (periosteum)
Form capsules around some organs (e.g., liver,
kidneys)
Text page 130-133
 Elastic connective tissue
Like dense regular but with more elastic
fibers
Special elastic ligaments in vertebrae
In walls of large arteries
Text page 130-133
 Supporting Connective Tissues
Dense ground substance
Closely packed fibers

Two types
Cartilage
For shock absorption and protection
Bone
For weight support and movement

Text page 132-135

Cartilage

Text page 132-135

 Notes on Cartilage
It has NO blood vessels:
If damaged, slow to heal

It has NO nerves
If damaged, you feel no pain

It is surrounded by Perichondrium
A dense irregular CT
Outer, fibrous layer (for strength)
Inner, cellular layer (for blood vessels)
Text page 132-135
 Cells of cartilage
Chondroblasts Text page 132-135

Make new cartilage

Chondrocytes
Adult form of
chondroblasts
Maintain cartilage
Will revert to being
chondroblasts if
repair is needed
Cartilage cells live in a special space called a LACUNA
(plural LACUNAE)
 3 Types of Cartilage: Hyaline
Most common type of cartilage
Has collagen fibers which are so tightly packed they
are no longer visible
Found:
Connecting ribs to sternum
In the respiratory system
At the end of bones (articular cartilage) Text page 132-135
 3 Types of Cartilage: Elastic
Has tightly packed dark staining elastic
fibers
Found in:
Epiglottis
External ear Text page 132-135
 3 Types of Cartilage: Fibro
Fibrocartilage:
Very dense wavy collagen fibers
Some chondrocytes in lacuna interspersed
Found
Between vertebrae
Meniscus of knee
Text page 132-135
 We will learn about muscle (page
136-139), nervous (page 140) and
bone (page 136) tissues in later
units

Blood (page 136) will be covered in

detail in Biol 252
Covering and lining membranes

Simple organs

Text page 140-142

 Covering and lining membranes
Simple organs that
form a physical barrier
Composed of
epithelium resting on
connective tissue

Types
Cutaneous
Mucus
Serous

Text page 140-142

 Cutaneous membrane
DRY MEMBRANE
Is the skin
Stratified squamous keratinized epithelium
on thick layer of connective tissue (dermis)

DERMIS

Text page 140-142

 Mucous Membranes
Lines cavities and
tubes that
communicate with
the outside world
digestive,
respiratory, urinary,
reproductive
systems WET MEMBRANE
Epithelium resting
on connective
tissue called
lamina propria
Highly absorptive
Secretes mucus Text page 140-142
 Serous Membranes
Line sealed internal cavities
Peritoneal - Digestive
Pericardial - Heart
Pleural Lungs

Simple squamous epithelium over thin layer

of areolar connective tissue
Secretes an oily fluid
Allows organs to move without friction

Text page 140-142

Tissue Repair

Text page 142, 143

What do we need for tissue to be
able to repair?
Cells that can divide
Growth factors (the signal to divide)
These are released by the damaged cells
Structural framework to rebuild the tissue
on

Text page 142, 143

 Types of repair
Type of repair depends on the blood
supply in that tissue and the nutritional
state of the individual
Regeneration
Replacement of damaged tissue with the same kind of
functional tissue
Can only take place in tissues which have cells which
can divide
Fibrosis
Replacement of damaged tissue with scar tissue
Scar tissue does not function the same as the original
tissue Text page 142, 143
 Stages of tissue repair 1: Inflammation
Scab

Epidermis

Blood clot in Vein

incised wound
Migrating white
Inflammatory blood cell
chemicals
Artery

1 Inflammation sets the stage:

Severed blood vessels bleed and inflammatory chemicals are
released.
Local blood vessels become more permeable, allowing white
blood cells, fluid, clotting proteins and other plasma proteins
to seep into the injured area. Text page 142, 143
Clotting occurs; surface dries and forms a scab.
Stages of tissue repair 2: Organization
Regenerating
epithelium

Area of
granulation
tissue
ingrowth
Fibroblast
Macrophage

Text page 142, 143

2 Organization restores the blood supply:
The clot is replaced by granulation tissue, which restores
the vascular supply.
Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers that bridge the gap.
Macrophages phagocytize cell debris.
Surface epithelial cells multiply and migrate over the
granulation tissue.
Stages of tissue repair 3: Regeneration & Fibrosis
Regenerated
epithelium

Fibrosed
area

3Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair:

The fibrosed area matures and contracts; the epithelium
thickens.
A fully regenerated epithelium with an underlying area of
scar tissue results. Text page 142, 143