SEF01: Solar Energy Conversion (2017-18)

Session 1 Mon 9 Oct 9.30-12.30

Prof Jenny Nelson The solar resource and solar energy
conversion
Solar cell device physics
Tutorial 1 Tues 10 Oct 10 -12
Dr Diego Alonso-Alvarez Solar radiation estimation

Session 2 Mon 16 Oct 9.30-12.30

Dr Piers Barnes Photovoltaic materials
Thin film PV materials
Tutorial 2 Tues 17 Oct 10-12
Dr Diego Alonso-Alvarez PV Systems

Session 3 Mon 23 Oct 9.30-12.30

Prof Jenny Nelson Limits to performance and future of PV
Solar thermal
Dr D. Alonso-Alvarez Multijunctions and concentrators
Tutorial 3 Tues 24 Oct 10-12
Prof J Nelson and Dr Class exercise(s)
Diego Alonso-Alvarez
Objectives:
To understand the principles of solar photovoltaic energy conversion
To appreciate the role of materials in PV technology and the status of established
(silicon, thin film) and emerging (organic, concentrator) photovoltaic technologies
To be able to solve simple problems in the design of PV systems or applications of PV
 SEF01: Solar Energy Conversion (2017-18)

Session 1 Mon 9 Oct 9.30-12.30

Prof Jenny Nelson
Tutorial 1 Tues 10 Oct 10 -12
Dr Diego Alonso-Alvarez
The solar resource and solar energy
conversion
Solar cell device physics
Solar radiation estimation

Session 2 Mon 16 Oct 9.30-12.30

Dr Piers Barnes Photovoltaic materials
Thin film PV materials
Tutorial 2 Tues 17 Oct 10-12
Dr Diego Alonso-Alvarez PV Systems

Session 3 Mon 23 Oct 9.30-12.30

Prof Jenny Nelson
Dr D. Alonso-Alvarez
Tutorial 3 Tues 24 Oct 10-12
Prof J Nelson and Dr
Diego Alonso-Alvarez
Limits to performance and future of PV
Solar thermal
Multijunctions and concentrators
Class exercise(s)

Prof. Jenny Nelson, Dept. of Physics, Imperial College (jenny.nelson@imperial.ac.uk)

Dr. Piers Barnes, Dept. of Physics, Imperial College (piers.barnes@imperial.ac.uk)
Dr. Diego Alonso-Alvarez, Dept. of Physics, Imperial College (d.alonso-alvarez@imperial.ac.uk)
 Outline

Photovoltaic applications

The solar resource

Solar energy conversion

Simple device physics of a solar cell

PV cell efficiencies
 Solar energy is a key part of the low carbon future

Anadarajah & Gambhir, Appl. Energy (2014) 131 (2014) 7986

http://www.iea.org/etp2017/summary/

Low carbon pathway: India to 2050

Renewables (solar and wind) are critical for decarbonising our energy system
The longer we delay, the more we will depend on solar and wind
Solar is especially relevant for enabling sustainable development
 The solar energy resource

Radiant power at Earths surface ~ 100000 TW

Electricity consumption ~ 2 TW
80% from fossil fuels & nuclear, <2% from PV
 Some concepts in PV

Solar cell
Module

System
 Status of solar PV
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3APV_cume_semi_log_chart_2014_estimate.svg

Courtesy: Martin Green, UNSW

Solar PV provides around 2% of global electricity production

Market dominated by crystalline silicon technology

What will limit growth?

What opportunities are there for technological innovation?

PHOTOVOLTAIC
APPLICATIONS
 Photovoltaic applications

54 158
Domestic off-grid
249
Non-domestic off-grid

Grid-connected
distributed
Grid-connected
1347 centralised

Cumulative PV capacity 2003 (MW): 1.8 GWp

 Photovoltaic applications

311 430

Domestic off-grid
4464
Non-domestic off-grid

Grid-connected distributed

8220 Grid-connected centralised

Cumulative PV capacity 2008 : 13.4 GWp

www.iea-pvps.org
 Photovoltaic applications

1.5

Off-grid
48.5

Grid-connected distributed

87.2 Grid-connected centralised

(quantities in GWp)

Cumulative PV capacity 2013 : 136 GWp

www.iea-pvps.org
 Photovoltaic applications

New capacity installed in 2015

(NOT cumulative): 0.3

Off-grid
17.1

Grid-connected distributed

33.2 Grid-connected centralised

(quantities in GWp)

Cumulative PV capacity 2015 : 256 GWp

Why is this equivalent to <2% of 2 TW?

www.iea-pvps.org
IEA PVPS Report: Trends in PV 2016
IEA PVPS Report: Trends in PV 2016
Blackfriars Bridge System size: 1.1 MWp
No of panels: 4,400
Estimated annual generation: 900,000 kWh
Estimated annual CO2 savings: 513,000 kg
 Minigrid set up by Imperial students in Bahraich, India: 4.2 kWp capacity over
three rooftops, supplying 100 households - domestic usage only at present (1W
bulbs, 4W bulbs, phone charging and fans)
(National grid had reached the village but no-one had ever received any power..)

http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_7-7-2017-10-39-34
THE SOLAR RESOURCE
 Solar power spectrum
2.0
AM0
-1
Irradiance / W m nm
1.5
-2

1.0

0.5

0.0

20
0
40
0
60
0
80
0
000 200 400 600 800 000
1 1 1 1 1 2
Wavelength / nm

E [eV]

4.14 3.10 2.48 2.07 1.77 1.55 1.38 1.24 1.03 0.96
yellow
purple

green
blue

red

UV IR

300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1100 1200 1300
[nm]
 Solar power spectrum
2.0
AM0
-1
Irradiance / W m nm BB5780K

1.5
-2

Power density 1353 W

m-2 outside earth
1.0
atmosphere

0.5

0.0

20
0
40
0
60
0
80
0
000 200 400 600 800 000
1 1 1 1 1 2
Wavelength / nm

E [eV]

4.14 3.10 2.48 2.07 1.77 1.55 1.38 1.24 1.03 0.96
yellow
purple

green
blue

red

UV IR

300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1100 1200 1300
[nm]
 Solar power spectrum
2.0
AM0
-1
Irradiance / W m nm BB5780K
AM1.5
1.5
-2

Atmosphere absorbs and

scatters light
1.0 ~15% of solar radiation is
diffuse

0.5 Standard spectrum is Air

Mass 1.5, 1000 Wm-2

0.0

20
0
40
0
60
0
80
0
000 200 400 600 800 000
1 1 1 1 1 2
Wavelength / nm
Air Mass = Cosec s
E [eV]

4.14 3.10 2.48 2.07 1.77 1.55 1.38 1.24 1.03 0.96
ss
Ma
Air
xn
yellow
purple

green
blue

red

UV IR
datm d atm
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1100 1200 1300
s
[nm]
 Solar power spectrum

E / eV 1240 / / nm
800
AMO
-1

BB5780K
Irradiance / W m eV

BB300K
600 AM1.5
-2

400

200

0
0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0
0. 0. 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4.
Photon Energy / eV

visible
 Solar photon flux spectrum
-1
Photon flux density / s m eV

800
-2

AMO
BB5780K
-1

BB300K
600 AM1.5

400

200

0
0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0
0. 0. 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 4.
Photon Energy / eV

Important quantity for PV is solar photon flux

density (not power density)
 Average Irradiance and Peak Sun Hours

Standard sun has total irradiance of 1000 W m-2

Average irradiance is typically 100 200 W m-2

Modules are rated in a standard sun, so to obtain average power output

Average module output (W) = Rated power (Wp) * Average irradiance in W m-2 / 1000

Alternatively, use peak sun hours where

PSH/day = 24 * Average irradiance in W m-2 / 1000

Sometimes find irradiance in kWh m-2 year-1

PSH/day = Annual average irradiance in kWh m-2 year-1/ 365

 Average ~ 3-4 peak sun hours / day (150-200 Wm-2)

Irradiance for horizontal orientation underestimates resource at high latitudes

Annual average irradiance for optimal orientation in Europe

Southern Britain ~ 125 Wm-2 (~3 peak sun hours)

Energy consumption per capita in Western Europe ~ 5 kW

Mean solar irradiance in Southern Britain ~ 125 W m-2

What land area is needed to supply the energy needs of a city

of 10 million people using solar irradiation:

(a) with conversion efficiency of 50%?

(b) with conversion efficiency of 5%

 7
7
6
6
Peak Sun Hours

Peak Sun Hours

5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1 Paris
Reykjavik 1
Tokyo
0
0
N B R R Y N L G P T V C
JA FE MA AP MA JU JU AU SE OC NO DE N EB AR PR AY N UL G EP CT V EC
JA F M A M JU J AU S O NO D
Month
Month
7 7

6 6
Peak Sun Hours

Peak Sun Hours

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 Bulawayo 2
Penang
1
Guantanamo 1 Sydney
0 0
AY

AY
T

T
L

L
N

N
AR

EC

EC
N

AR

P
B

R
V

V
JU

JU
C

C
O

O
FE

SE

FE

SE
JA

JA
JU

JU
AP

AP
AU

AU
O

O
M

M
D

D
M

M
N

N
Month Month

Dr Alonso will treat estimation of the solar resource in detail on Tuesday, 10th October.
 Value of PV power depends on the matching of generation and demand
In industrial countries the daily generation peak may match peak demand fairly well
PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY
CONVERSION
 Light energy conversion

Packets of light energy (photons) defined by the wavelength of light

May be absorbed in matter to promote electrons to higher energy

600

-1
Irradiance / W m eV
500

-2
400

300

200

100

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Photon energy / eV

What happens next depends on the system

 600

-1
Irradiance / W m eV
500

-2
400

300

200

100

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Photon energy / eV
Energy

Chemical
Light Light Dm potential Light Electric
Dm
work
energy
Heat

Solar thermal Solar chemical Solar photovoltaic

 Photons in, electrons out

eV

Photovoltaic energy conversion requires:

photon absorption across an energy gap
separation of photogenerated charges
asymmetric contacts to an external circuit
Photons in, electrons out
Photons in, electrons out

silicon
n type
p type silicon
n type

p type silicon efficiency

~ 15-20%

power rating
~ 100-200 Wp

Applications

CIS Tower, Manchester

0.4 MWp
(Solar Century) Solar powered refrigeration ~1 mWp
~100 Wp
 Semiconductor p-n junction

n type

p type

0V 0V

Light
Eg

Band gap enables photogeneration

Compositional change drives photocurrent
In the dark

Voltage
 Open circuit

Voltage

Voc

- +
Open
circuit
voltage
Voc
Short circuit

Voltage

Short circuit
current
density
-Jsc
Operating: photovoltage x photocurrent = electric power

Voltage

Load Operating
point
 Solar cell characteristics

Short circuit current density Jsc,

Voltage / V Vm VOC
Open circuit voltage Voc

Power density
Current density
Fill factor FF J mVm
FF
J scVoc
Power conversion efficiency Power density

-Jm
J scVoc FF
PCE -JSC Current density
Pin

Pin bin ( E ) E dE

Measured under Standard Test Conditions

(AM1.5, 1000 Wm-2, 25C)
 The current voltage curve

A current-voltage (JV) characteristics is

relatively easy to measure
relatively difficult to understand
finally the decisive information

current density J [mAcm ]

-2
Voc
0

-10

-20

-30
Jsc Jmpp,Vmpp

200 400 600 800

JSC VOC Pmax
voltage V [mV]

Slide courtesy of Thomas Kirchartz

Whats this got to do with PV?

Slide: Michael Graetzel

48
Solar cell device physics

n type
V
p type

x=d
x=0
 Operation of p-n junction solar cell
To generate electric power from solar radiation we need
An energy gap (to keep photo-generated electrons at high Dm)
A preferred direction for electron extraction

A semiconductor provides the energy gap

Asymmetric contacts (for directed charge extraction) can be provided by a p-n or
n-p junction

n type

p type

0V 0V

Light
Eg
 Semiconductors

Conduction
band

Energy
EC (CB)
Density of States
Band gap (Eg)
EV
Valence
Band
(VB)

Crystal structure Band structure Density of States Band picture

Energy
p-n junction

m
m
m

intrinsic n-type p-type

ni electrons and holes Nd dopant atoms Na dopant atoms
Energy

n-type p-type
Energy Electric field

m
m
-
-
-
+
+ -
+
+ p-type
n-type
 p-n junction

Evac

p
Evac
Ec

Energy
EF
Ev
Vbi

position

kT N d N a
Built-in bias Vbi ln
e ni
2

eVbi band gap Eg

 J-V response of a p-n junction in the dark
Evac
= 0 1
Ec Applying a forward bias (i.e. n side
EFn negative, p side positive) pushes
charges towards the junction and
qV EFp reduces the barrier height.
Ev
Current increases exponentially with V.
(m = ideality factor. Typically 1 < m < 2)

n region p region
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -

Space charge region

 J-V response of a p-n junction in the light
Evac

= + 0 1
Ec

EFn
Intensity dependent term Bias dependent term
qV JG J -(exp(eV/kT) 1)
EFp
PHOTOCURRENT DARK CURRENT
Ev

Illuminating the cell now introduces a

photocurrent that acts in the opposite
direction. Photoexcited charge carriers
n region p region cross the junction following the local
+ - electric field.
+ -
+ - Current is sum of two opposing terms.
+ -
+ -
+ -

Space charge region Equivalent circuit is a

diode in parallel with a
current generator
 J-V response of a p-n junction in the light

= + 0 1

Intensity dependent term Bias dependent term

JG J -(exp(eV/kT) 1)
PHOTOCURRENT DARK CURRENT

Dark current comes from

recombination in emitter, at n region p region
Jsc mainly from
junction and contacts as well + -
+ - base. Most light
as base. Recombination + -
+ - absorbed here
mostly non-radiative -
+ -
through defects +

Space charge region

Factors limiting performance: Short circuit current density

J SC e QE E bin E dE
Voltage
Current density

-2 -1 -1
Solar photon flux density / m s eV
800 1.0
700

Quantum efficiency
0.8
600
500 0.6
400
300 0.4

200
0.2
100
0 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Ways to increase JSC : Photon energy / eV

increase spectral range of reduce band gap Eg

absorption
increase internal quantum efficiency improve material quality to improve
(IQE) collection efficiency
reduce reflectivity anti-reflection coating
increase optical depth d increase thickness, use back mirror

59
 Factors limiting performance: Open circuit voltage

Voltage
J V J 0 e eV / mkT 1 J SC
Open circuit voltage VOC :
Current density

mkT J SC
VOC ln
e J0

To increase VOC we need to increase separation of electron and hole quasi Fermi levels
(effectively, doping and band gap) and decrease recombination :

Increase separation of electron and increase band gap Eg

hole energies
increase doping levels

Reduce recombination improve electronic quality of material

reduce defect density, especially at

junction
60
 Factors limiting performance: Fill factor

Voltage Voltage Voltage

Current density
Current density

Rsh decreasing

Current density
Rs increasing Ideality factor increasing

m=2
m=1

Ways to increase fill factor :

reduce recombination through defects reduce defect density at junction

decrease series resistance RS increase doping levels, increase contact

cross section or density
increase shunt resistance Rsh improve edge quality, thickness,
passivate grain boundaries 61
 Solar cell design

24.4% efficient PERL cell

(design: UNSW;
Manufactured by BP Solar)

Problem Solution

Reflection by surface and contacts Antireflection coat, narrow metal fingers

Incomplete of light absorption Textured surfaces, thick active layer

Fast charge recombination High purity crystal, high quality junction, low
doping in bulk of cell, surface passivation
Resistive losses High doping near contacts, deep metal fingers

62
 Other device structures
p-i-n-structure

ZnO:Al mc-Si:H (i) ZnO:Al Al

ZnO:Al

d~ mc-Si:H
d ~ 1.5mm (i) d~
800 nm 80 nm

mc-Si:H (p) a-Si:H (n)

d ~ 20 nm d ~ 20 nm
5 Evac

4
Thin film heterojunction
energy E/eV

1 EC

EF
0
Figure: Thomas Kirchartz

EV

solarindustrymag.com
-1
c-Si:H

-2
0 500 1000
position x/nm

p-i-n junction
Rear contact solar cell
Which of these structures generate a photovoltaic effect?

Evac
1 = 2 F2 > F1
F1
EC
EF
Evac EF
1 > 2 F2 = F1
F1
EC
EF
EF

Evac

NC1 > NC2

EC
EF

64
 Exercise : Do we want a large or small energy gap?

4.0
3.5
Photon energy / eV

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
? E gap
0.5
0.0
Exercise : Do we want a large or small energy gap?

Current
4.0
Energy gap
3.5
Photon energy / eV

3.0

Voltage
2.5
2.0
Energy gap
1.5
1.0
0.5

Power
0.0

Energy gap
 Exercise : Do we want a large or small energy gap?

Current
4.0
Energy gap
3.5
Photon energy / eV

3.0

Voltage
2.5
2.0
Energy gap
1.5
1.0
0.5

Power
0.0

Energy gap
 Exercise : Do we want a large or small energy gap?

Current
Maximum Efficiency / %

4.0 30
Energy gap
3.5
Photon energy / eV

Silicon GaAs
3.0

Voltage
CdTe
2.5 20 CuInGaSe2
2.0
Energy gap
1.5 Molecular Amorphous Silicon
1.0 Dye sensitised
10
0.5

Power
0.0

0 Energy gap
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Energy gap
CELL AND MODULE
EFFICIENCIES
 Solar cell performance

Green at al, Solar Cell Efficiency Tables, Progress in Photovoltaics (2017)

Material Eg (eV) Jsc (mAcm-2) Voc (V) Fill factor Efficiency (%)

Crystalline 1.1 42.7 0.74 84.9 26.7

silicon

DOI: 10.1002/pip.2909
Crystalline GaAs 1.4 29.7 1.12 86.5 28.8

Polycrystalline 1.1 40.8 0.67 79.7 21.9

Silicon

CuInGaSe2 1.1 40.7 0.72 74.3 21.7

Cd Te 1.4 30.2 0.88 79.4 21.0

Amorphous Si ~1.7 16.4 0.89 69.8 10.2

Jizhong Yao Organic ~1.5 19.3 0.78 74.2 11.2

Perovskite 1.6 24.7 1.10 72.3 19.7

Perovskite 1.6 19.5 1.03 76.1 16.0

(mini-module)

Differences between materials lie in the optical gap (Eg) and the electronic quality
70
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png

71
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.png

Dr Barnes will discuss new materials in detail on Monday, 16th October. 72

 From cells to systems

C-Si module efficiencies

typically ~ 15%

Light to power efficiency of

best silicon solar cell ~ 25%
 From cells to systems
Solar cell
Area ~ 100 cm2
Current output in AM 1.5:
I ~ 30 mA cm-2 x 100 cm2 = 3 A
Voltage at maximum power point ~ 0.5 V
Power conversion efficiency
= 3A x 0.5 V / (100 cm2 x 100 mWcm-2) = 15%
 From cells to systems
Solar module

BP 380J 80 Wp module

36 x 150 cm2 cells in series

Current output in AM 1.5:
I ~ 30 mA cm-2 x 150 cm2 = 4.5 A

Voltage at mpp ~ 36 x 0.5 V ~ 18 V

Power conversion efficiency ~ 15%

Module designed to supply charge to a

12V rated battery or inverter
 Summary
Installed photovoltaic capacity reached ~300 GWp in 2016, mainly in grid
connected applications

Overhead sun provides ~ 1 kW m-2 of radiant power at the Earths surface,

annually averaged irradiance ~ 100 200 W m-2 depending on latitude

In photovoltaic energy conversion,

absorbed photons promote electrons to higher energy levels within a
semiconductor
opposite charges are driven towards opposite contact by electrode
selectivity
charges are extracted (current) with some electrochemical potential
energy (voltage)

Power conversion efficiency is 26-29% for the best single junction solar cells.