Principles of Biology

The Characteristics of Life

Life is diverse but all living

things share common
characteristics.
Living things are organized.
• Living things acquire materials and
energy.
Photosynthetic organisms use carbon
dioxide, water, and solar energy to make
food.
Animals obtain nutrients and energy from
food eaten.
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Many living things can convert energy to
motion.
• Living things reproduce.

Genes (DNA) contain information

needed for heredity and metabolism.

Metabolism is all the chemical reactions

in the cell.

Reproduction may be asexual or sexual.

• Living things respond to stimuli.

Living things may respond to external

stimuli by movement toward or away from
a stimulus.

Movement constitutes part of the behavior

of an organism.
• Living things are homeostatic.
Homeostasis is the ability of an
organism to maintain relatively
constant internal conditions.
An example is temperature regulation
in the human body.
All organ systems contribute to
homeostasis.
• Living things are adapted.

Adaptations come about through

evolution.

Evolution is the process by which a

species changes through time.

Evolution explains both the unity and

diversity of life.
The Classification of Living Things
• Taxomony is the science of
identifying and classifying
organisms according to specific
criteria using these categories:
Kingdom
Phylum (Division)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
 There are three domains:

Archaea and Bacteria – unicellular

prokaryotes that lack a membrane-
bound nucleus.

Eukarya – showing cellular complexity

and having a nucleus and other
organelles.
 Archaea live in harsh environments
and may represent the first cells to
have evolved.
Bacteria, some of which cause human
diseases, are present in almost all
habitats on earth.
Many bacteria are important
environmentally and commercially.
The Domain Eukarya is divided into 4
kingdoms:

Protists (kingdom Protista)

Fungi (kingdom Fungi)
Plants (kingdom Plantae)
Animals (kingdom Animalia)
Scientific names are binomial names,
using genus and species.
Modern humans are Homo sapiens.
The Organization of the Biosphere
The biosphere is the zone of life in the
air, water, and land that surrounds
the planet.
Groups of individuals of a species are
called populations.
Populations of different species that
interact make up communities.
Communities plus the physical habitat
form ecosystems.
 The Process of Science
Biology, the study of life, uses the
scientific method.
The scientific method has these steps:
Observation
Hypothesis
Experiments/Further Observations
Conclusion
Theory
An experimental design contains a
control group that goes through all the
steps of the experiment but is not
exposed to the factor being tested.

Results of an experiment are called data.

Data undergo statistical evaluation.

 The Cellular Level of
Organization
• Living things are constructed of
cells.
• Living things may be unicellular or
multicellular.
• Cell structure is diverse but all
cells share common
characteristics.
The cell theory states:
1. All organisms are composed of one or
more cells.
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure
and function in organisms.
3. All cells come only from other cells.
Cells are small so they can exchange
materials with their surroundings.
Sizes of living things
 Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus that
controls the workings of the cell.

All cells are surrounded by a plasma

membrane made of phospholipids
and proteins.
The plasma membrane regulates what
enters and exits the cell.

Inside the plasma membrane, the

nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm.

Plant cells have a cell wall in addition to

the plasma membrane.
Animal and plant cells have organelles.

Organelles compartmentalize functions

within the cell.

The organelles of animal and plant cells

are similar to each other except that
centrioles are present only in animal
cells, and chloroplasts are present only
in plant cells.
Animal cell anatomy
Plant cell anatomy
 Structure of the Nucleus
Chromatin: DNA and proteins
Nucleolus: Chromatin and ribosomal
subunits
Nuclear envelope: Double membrane
with pores
Nucleoplasm: semifluid medium inside
the nucleus.
 Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.

Examples include Deoxyribonucleic Acid

(DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).
DNA is double-stranded, with
complementary base pairing.
Nucleus and nuclear
envelope
 Ribosomes
Protein synthesis occurs at tiny
organelles called ribosomes.
Ribosomes are composed of a large
subunit and a small subunit.
Ribosomes can be found alone in
the cytoplasm, in groups called
polyribosomes, or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 The Endomembrane System
The endomembrane system consists of:

Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Vesicles
 The endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
system of membranous channels and
saccules.
Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and
is the site of protein synthesis and
processing.
Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is the
site of synthesis of phospholipids and
the packaging of proteins into vesicles,
among other functions.
The endoplasmic reticulum
 Proteins
Proteins perform many functions in cells.
Proteins:
Serve as structural proteins
Act as enzymes to speed reactions
Serve as transport carriers
Act as antibodies
Allow materials to cross cell membranes
Proteins are polymers of amino acids.
 The Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists of a
stack of curved saccules.
The Golgi apparatus receives protein
and also lipid-filled vesicles from the
ER, packages, processes, and
distributes them within the cell.
This organelle may also be involved in
secretion.
The Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes and vacuoles
Lysosomes are vesicles produced by the
Golgi apparatus.
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes
and are involved in intracellular
digestion.
Vacuoles (large) and vesicles (small) are
membranous sacs in the cell that store
substances.
 Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are vesicles than contain
enzymes.
The enzymes in these organelles use up
oxygen and produce hydrogen
peroxide.
Peroxisomes are abundant in the liver
where they produce bile salts and
cholesterol and break down fats.
Energy-Related Organelles

The two energy-related organelles

of eukaryotes are chloroplasts
and mitochondria.
Both organelles house energy in
the form of ATP.
 Chloroplasts
A chloroplast is bounded by two
membranes enclosing a fluid-filled
stroma that contains enzymes.
Membranes inside the stroma are
organized into thylakoids that house
chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll absorbs solar energy and
carbohydrates are made in the stroma.
Chloroplast structure
 Mitochondria
Mitochondria are found in plant and
animal cells.
Mitochondria are bounded by a
double membrane surrounding
fluid-filled matrix.
The inner membranes of
mitochondria are cristae.

The matrix contains enzymes that

break down carbohydrates and the
cristae house protein complexes
that produce ATP.
Mitochondrion structure
 The Cytoskeleton
The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is a network of
filaments and tubules that extends from the
nucleus to the plasma membrane.
The cytoskeleton contains three types of
elements responsible for cell shape,
movement within the cell, and movement of
the cell:
Actin filaments
Microtubules
Intermediate filaments
Actin filaments occur in bundles
or mesh-like networks.
Actin filaments play a structural
role in intestinal microvilli and
also interact with motor
molecules, such as myosin.
Actin filaments
Microtubles are small hollow
cylinders made of the globular
protein tubulin.
Microtubule assembly is controlled
by the microtubule organizing
center, called the centrosome.
Microtubules help maintain the
shape of the cell and act as tracks
along which organelles can move.
Microtubule structure
Intermediate filaments are ropelike
assemblies of fibrous
polypeptides that support the
plasma membrane and nuclear
envelope.
Structure of intermediate
filaments
 Centrioles
Centrioles are short cylinders with
a 9 + 0 pattern of microtubule
triplets.
Centrioles may be involved in
microtubule formation and
disassembly during cell division
and in the organization of cilia
and flagella.
Centriole structure
 Cilia and flagella
Cilia (small and numerous) and flagella
(large and single) have a 9 + 2
pattern of microtubules and are
involved in cell movement.
Cilia and flagella move when the
microtubule doublets slide past one
another.
Each cilium and flagellum has a basal
body at its base.
Structure of a flagellum or cilium
 Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic cells include the bacteria and
archaea.
Bacterial cells have these constant features:
Outer Boundary: Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm: Ribosomes
Thylakoids (Cyanobacteria)
Innumerable enzymes
Nucleoid: Chromosome (DNA only)
Bacterial cells may have plasmids,
small accessory rings of DNA.
Some bacteria have a capsule or a
slime layer.
Most bacteria have flagella.
Some also have fimbriae that help
cells attach to surfaces.
Bacteria have a great metabolic
diversity.