rancangan pembelajaran ekonomi

dan Prakarya Kewirausahaan

Ahmad Chafid Alwi, M.Pd

 what does it mean?
Instructional Design (also called Instructional Systems Design
(ISD)) is the practice of maximizing the effectiveness,
efficiency and appeal of instruction and other learning
experiences. The process consists broadly of determining the
current state and needs of the learner, defining the end goal
of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to assist in
the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically
(process of teaching) and andragogically (adult learning)
tested theories of learning and may take place in student-only,
teacher-led or community-based settings. The outcome of this
instruction may be directly observable and scientifically
measured or completely hidden and assumed. There are
many instructional design models but many are based on the
ADDIE model with the five phases: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3)
development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. As a
field, instructional design is historically and traditionally
rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology.
 ADDIE PROCESS
• Analyze
– analyze learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc.
– Identify Instructional Goals, Conduct Instructional Analysis, Analyze
Learners and Contexts
• Design
– develop learning objectives, choose an instructional approach
– Write Performance Objectives, Develop Assessment Instruments,
Develop Instructional Strategy
• Develop
– create instructional or training materials
– Design and selection of materials appropriate for learning activity,
Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation
• Implement
– deliver or distribute the instructional materials
• Evaluate
– make sure the materials achieved the desired goals
 Dick & Carey

Conduct Revise
Instructional Instruction
Analysis

Identify Write Develop Develop Dev. & Select Dev. & Cond.
Instructional Performance Assessment Instructional Instructional Formative
Objectives Instruments Strategy Materials Evaluation
Goal

Analysis Des. & Cond.

Learners and Sumative
Contexts Evaluation
 Dick & Carey
• Identify Instructional Goal(s): goal statement describes a skill, knowledge or
attitude (SKA) that a learner will be expected to acquire
• Conduct Instructional Analysis: Identify what a learner must recall and identify
what learner must be able to do to perform particular task
• Analyze Learners and Contexts: General characteristic of the target audience,
Characteristic directly related to the skill to be taught, Analysis of Performance
Setting, Analysis of Learning Setting
• Write Performance Objectives: Objectives consists of a description of the
behavior, the condition and criteria. The component of an objective that
describes the criteria that will be used to judge the learner's performance.
• Develop Assessment Instruments: Purpose of entry behavior testing, purpose of
pretesting, purpose of posttesting, purpose of practive items/practive problems
• Develop Instructional Strategy: Pre-instructional activities, content presentation,
Learner participation, assessment
• Develop and Select Instructional Materials
• Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction: Designer try to identify
areas of the instructional materials that are in need to improvement.
• Revise Instruction: To identify poor test items and to identify poor instruction
• Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
 Perspective Behavioral
Early 20th century
B.F. Skinner – his ideas on Operant
Conditioning largely contributed this
perspective.
Background Developed as a reaction to the study of
mental phenomena.
Learning occurs when new behaviors or
changes in behaviors are acquired as
Definition the result of an individual’s response to
stimuli.
The influence of the external
environment contributes to the shaping
of the individual's behavior.
The environment presents an
antecedent that prompts a behavior.
Principles
Whether the behavior occurs again is
dependent on the consequence that
follows it.
More on Behaviorism
1. State objectives and break them
down into steps
Applications for 2. Provide hints or cues that guide
Instruction students to desired behavior.
3. Use consequences to reinforce the
desired behavior.
Information Processing
Mid 20th century
George Miller – provided two ideas that
are fundamental to this perspective: 1.
short-term memory can only hold 5-9
chunks of meaningful information. 2. The
human mind functions like a computer –
taking in information, processes it, stores
and locates it and generates responses
to it.
Developed as a reaction to behaviorism.
Learning is a change in knowledge
stored in memory.
Governed by internal process rather than
by external circumstance (behaviorism).
Process of selecting information
(Attention), translating information
(Encoding), and recalling that
information when appropriate (Retrieval).
1. Organize new information.
2. Link new information to existing
knowledge.
3. Use techniques to guide and support
students' Attention, Encoding, and
Retrieval process.
Constructivist
Later 20th century (although ideas of
constructivism have existed prior to the
20th century - Dewey, Piaget, Bruner,
and Vygotsky)
Represents a collection of theories
including - generative learning, discovery
learning, and situated learning..
Ideas of constructivism come from
cognitive psychology, developmental
psychology, and anthropology.
Learning is the process where
individuals construct new ideas or
concepts based on prior knowledge
and/or experience.
Individuals construct knowledge by
working to solve realistic problems,
usually in collaboration with others.
Learning as a change in meaning
constructed from experience.
Individual interpretation of experience vs.
objective representation (information
processing perspective)
More on Constructivism
1. Pose "good" problems - realistically
complex and personally meaningful.
2. Create group learning activities.
3. Model and guide the knowledge
construction process.
 Learning Theories
Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism

proponents B.F. Skinner Jerome Bruner Lev Vygotsky John Dewey Knowles

training, e.g. flight any deep processing: exploring, organizing,

applications Collaborative learning
simulators synthesizing content

Instructor designs the Instructor manages problem solving and

instructional design Instructor mentors peer interaction and
learning structured search activities, especially with
focus continuity of building on known concepts.
environmment. group learning strategies.

basically passive, Learners process, store, and retrieve Learners create their own unique education
view of learner just responding to information for use. (Bruner's Discovery because learning is based on prior
stimuli Learning) knowledge.

integrating complex
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development
assets muscular and Learning is interactive, dialogic.
focuses on interactive problem solving.
cognitive activities

Climate for Readiness: Students will learn concepts that Prior Knowledge: Design learning to assist
Learning: Does the are maturing. students to build on what they know.
environment have Opportunity: ZPD = area between what a Inquirey Learning: Adult learners have a
the right stimuli to learner can do individually vs. assist by peer mutual vested interest in their learning and
implications
promote learning? interaction, research and teaching. want to involve real experience; teachers
Learners Customize Their Learning: Provide are not the sole possessors of knowledge
a range of learning activities and concepts and perspective but co-learners and guides.
for core course objectives. (Knowles' andragogy)
 Applications to Instructional Design
Presentation vs. Participation Designing Instruction
Moore: Inducing knowledge results from student
Robert Gagne originated systematic instructional design,
participation sparked by the right questions. Instructors
analyzing learners and course goals to make objectives,
mentor students, consult on content, motivate, help
sequence instructional experiences, set the medium of
students integrate and contextualize learning, and run
instruction, and assess student performance and the course.
classes through participatory management principles.

• Behavioral objectives are the basis of performance assessment--for the students and for the course.
• Learning activities engage the learner by providing chances for interaction with information sources
(instructor, other experts, peers).
• 9 Events of Instruction (Gagne): Each portion of instruction should engage learners, make them
aware of objectives, trigger relevant prior knowledge, put students with material to be learned,
guide students as needed, get students to use their learning and give feedback before assessing
performance, and then help students to retain and transfer concepts.
• Actually, cognitive and affective learning interact complexly in modern course goals and objectives.
• Learning may involve "just-in-time" database access in addition to sequenced study.
• Applying instructional technology requires applying up-to-date findings in communications,
computer science, and learning theory.
• Applying instructional technology also requires faculty to balance the interaction of students with
content, instructor, and peers, along with selecting appropriate learning and assessment strategies
specific to particular technologies.
 Model Instruction
• Modern Models (Behaviorist, Cognitivist,
Prescriptive Models)
• Postmodern Phenomenological Models
(Constructivist Models)
• Comparative Models
– Behaviorist, Cognitivist, Constructivist
– Behaviorist, Constructivist
– Behaviorist, Information Processing, Constructivist
– Objectivism/Behaviorism Cognitivism/Pragmatism
Constructivism/Interpretivism
 Behaviorism
• Ivan Pavlov
• Edward Thorndike
• John Watson
• B. F. Skinner
 Cognitivism
• Advanced Organizers
• Cone of Experience
• Information Processing
• Dual Coding Theory
• Concept Mapping
 Prescriptive Design Models
• Algo-Heuristic Theory
• ADDIE: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation
• A.S.S.U.R.E.
• ARCS
• Criterion Referenced Instruction
• Component Display Theory
• Morrison, Ross, and Kemp
• Dick and Carey
• Elaboration Theory
• Robert Gagne
• Instructional Systems Design ISD
• the 4C-ID Model
• Organizational Elements Model
• Rapid Prototyping
• Objective Taxonomies
 Postmodern Phenomenological Models

• Action Research (Participatory Design Models)

• Activity Theory (artifact-mediated and object-
oriented action)
• Anchored Instruction
• Andrgogy
• Cognitive Apprenticeship
• Cognitive Flexibility Theory
• Generative Learning - Merlin C. Wittrock
• CSCL Computer Supported Collaborative Learning
• CSILE Computer Supported Intentional Learning
Environments
• Conversation Theory
• Discovery Learning
• Inquiry Teaching
• Interpretation Construction (ICON) Design Model
• Mind Tools
• Maria Montessori
• Problem-Based Learning
• The Project Method Self-initiated, holistic,
purposeful activity
• Play
• Role Play
• Roger Schank
• Schema Theory
• Situated Cognition
• Observational (Social) Learning Theory
• Structural Knowledge
• Analyze
– Determine business outcome or linkage.
– Analyze system (department, job, etc.) to gain an
understanding of it.
– Compile a task inventory of all tasks associated
with each job (if needed).
– Select tasks that people need to learn to become
performers (needs analysis).
– Build performance measures for the tasks to be
learned.
– Choose instructional setting for the tasks to be
learned, e.g. classroom, elearning, on-the-job, self
study, blended, etc.
– Estimate cost and compare to benefits gained.
• Design
– Develop the learning objectives, to include both
terminal and enabling objectives.
– Identify and list the learning steps required to
perform the task.
– Develop performance tests to show mastery of
the tasks.
– List the entry behaviors that the learner must
demonstrate prior to entering the learning
program.
– Sequence and structure the learning objectives.
• Develop
– List activities that will help the students learn the
task.
– Select the delivery methods (media).
– Review existing material so that you do not
reinvent the wheel.
– Develop the instructional courseware.
– Synthesize the courseware into a viable learning
program.
– Validate the instruction to ensure it accomplishes
all goals and objectives.
• Implement
– Create a management plan for conducting the
training.
– Conduct the training.
• Evaluate
– Review and evaluate each phase (analyze, design,
develop, implement) to ensure it is accomplishing
what it is supposed to.
– Perform external evaluations, e.g. observe that
the tasks that were trained can actually be
performed by the learners in their working
environment.
– Revise training system to make it better and to
meet future challenges.
relationship among terms

Education

Instruction

Training

Teaching
 instructional design process
• where are we going? (perform instructional
analysis)
• how will we get there? (develop
instructional strategy)
• how will we know when we have arrived?
(develop and conduct an evaluation)
instructional design process model
Learning contexts

Learners

Learning taks write test items

determine
organizational strategies
delivery strategies
write n produce management strategies
instruction

conduct formatif revise

evaluation instruction
 context analysis
• need assessment
– problem
– innovation
– discrepancy
• description of environment
– teachers
– existing curricula
– equipment
– facilities
– organization
– larger system
Principles of Effective Learning

As in any art
1

3
Teaching is Designing
designing for learning form, there
for learning is an art are principles
that guide
form good design
 Principles of Effective Learning
Principles implication
Many heads are better than one COLLABORATION
DEVELOP SKILLS
- cooperative - organisational -
We don’t automatically have the necessary skills to learn thinking
- operational - task specific

CHALLENGE
CURIOSITY
The brain needs to be stimulated to learn MYSTERY/INTRIGUE
EXCITEMENT
RELEVANCE
PROTECT SELF
ESTEEM
We need to feel secure to learn SAFE, SUPPORTIVE
ENVIRONMENT
NON-THREATENING
 Principles implication
We can be challenged/stimulated by HEALTHY
the standards set by others COMPETITION
SHARING
The brain needs to talk to learn DISCUSSION
DEBATE
MULTISENSORY
We learn with our whole body
EXPERIENTIAL
We learn when we have a purpose FOCUS/GOAL
ACCESSIBLE,
ACHIEVABLE
We yearn to achieve
CHALLENGES
CELEBRATION
REWARD
VARIETY/DIVERSITY
We yearn for enrichment
CREATIVITY
We learn by copying MODELLING
Understanding develops through examples, metaphor & SHOW EXAMPLES AND NON-
models EXAMPLES
 Principles implication
We need to know how we’re going FEEDBACK
OWNERSHIP
We yearn to express ourselves
CHOICE
Everyone likes to be acknowledged and to contribute INVOLVEMENT
Understanding is essential to meaningful language
UNDERSTANDING BEFORE
acquisition
DEFINTION & PROPOSITION

Learning is constructing and reconstructing meaning VALUE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

DRAW OUT THE
The brain finds it easy to learn patterns difficult to
ESSENCE/MEANING FIND THE
learn arbitrary information
PATTERN
PERSEVERANCE CONSOLIDATION
Mastery in learning requires practice and persistence
PRACTICE