Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Control System
Control System
SYSTEM
INSTRUMENTATION
Control System Instrumentation
Sensors
The book briefly discusses commonly used sensors for the most
important process variables. (See text.)
Transmitters
• A transmitter usually converts the sensor output to a signal level
appropriate for input to a controller, such as 4 to 20 mA.
• Transmitters are generally designed to be direct acting.
• In addition, most commercial transmitters have an adjustable
input range (or span).
• For example, a temperature transmitter might be adjusted so that
the input range of a platinum resistance element (the sensor) is
50 to 150 °C.
Chapter 9
• In this case, the following correspondence is obtained:
Input Output
50 °C 4 mA
150 °C 20 mA
Example 9.1
Pneumatic control valves are to be specified for the applications
listed below. State whether an A-O or A-C valve should be used
for the following manipulated variables and give reason(s).
Pv
q Cv f (9-2)
gs
• Here q is the flow rate, f is the flow characteristic, Pv is the
pressure drop across the valve, and gs is the specific gravity of
the fluid.
• This relation is valid for nonflashing fluids.
• Specification of the valve size is dependent on the so-called
valve characteristic f.
• Three control valve characteristics are mainly used.
• For a fixed pressure drop across the valve, the flow
characteristic f 0 f 1 is related to the lift 0 1 , that
is, the extent of valve opening, by one of the following relations:
Linear: f
Quick opening: f (9-3)
1
Equal percentage: f R
Figure 9.8 Control valve characteristics.
Figure 9.16 Schematic diagram of a thermowell/thermocouple.
Dynamic Measurement Errors
An energy balance on the thermowell gives
dTm
mC UA T Tm (9-13)
dt
where U is the heat transfer coefficient and A is the heat transfer
area. Rearranging gives
mC dTm
Tm T (9-14)
UA dt
Converting to deviation variables and taking the Laplace
transform gives
Tm s 1
(9-15)
T s τs 1
with τ mC / UA.
Figure 9.13 Analysis of types of error for a flow instrument
whose range is 0 to 4 flow units.
Figure 9.14 Analysis of
instrument error showing the
increased error at low readings
(from Lipták (1971)).
Figure 9.15 Nonideal instrument behavior: (a) hysteresis,
(b) deadband.
• Example: Flow Control Loop
Assume FT is direct-acting.
p t p Kc ysp t ym t (8-22)
k
0 e t * dt e j t
t
(8-24)
j 1
de ek ek 1
(8-25)
dt t
where:
t = the sampling period (the time between successive
measurements of the controlled variable)
ek = error at the kth sampling instant for k = 1, 2, …
There are two alternative forms of the digital PID control
equation, the position form and the velocity form. Substituting (8-
24) and (8-25) into (8-13), gives the position form,
t k D
pk p K c ek e j ek ek 1 (8-26)
1 j 1 t
t k 1
D
pk 1 p Kc ek 1 e (ek 1 ek 2 )
I j 1
j
t
(8-27)
Note that the summation still begins at j = 1 because it is assumed
that the process is at the desired steady state for
j 0 and thus ej = 0 for j 0. Subtracting (8-27) from (8-26)
gives the velocity form of the digital PID algorithm:
t D
pk pk pk 1 K c ek ek 1 ek ek 2ek 1 ek 2
I t
(8-28)
t k D
pk p K c ek e j ek ek 1 (8-26)
1 j 1 t
t k 1
D
pk 1 p Kc ek 1 e (ek 1 ek 2 )
I j 1
j
t
(8-27)
t D
pk pk pk 1 K c ek ek 1 ek ek 2ek 1 ek 2
I t
(8-28)
The velocity form has three advantages over the position form:
• Linear-trim valves: f ( x) x
• Equal-percentage-trim valves:
f ( x) x 1
Control Valve Characteristics
Equal-Percentage Valves
f ( x) x 1
20 ≦ α ≦ 50
df ( x) / dx ln x 1
ln
f ( x) x 1
Installed Characteristics
Installed Characteristics