HOUSE RULES

1. Attendance comprises 5% of each term grade. It is the

duty of the student to come to class on the specified
class schedule.
2. The name of the students are called at the end of each
period.
3. If a student is absent during quiz or exam, a written
explanation signed by guardian or parents noted by
the Dean should be presented in order to have a
special quiz or exam.
4. N0 special quiz will be given after the result of the
quizzes has already been distributed to the students.
This will prevent the students to know the solution of
the original quiz.
5. Assignment should be submitted on time, late
assignments will be strictly not accepted except if the
student is absent from the time the assignment should
be submitted.
6. Assignment comprises 5% of grade in each term.
7. There will be no surprise quiz so as to make the
student well prepared during the date of the quiz.
8. Students who are absent during laboratory activity
will have their own lab activity. Laboratory final report
comprises 40% of the trimestral grade.
9. Permits should be presented during examination
days. Failure to do so will automatically disqualify the
student to have their exam. In this case, the student
will pay to the cashier a certain amount for special
examination.
10. Silence is a must during lecture time. There is
allotted time for argument, questions and interactions.
11. Remove your hats, sunglasses, earphones and other
paraphernalia that is not needed inside the classroom.
If you do not obey the rules the door is always open for
you.
12. Observe courtesy when asking questions. It might
come back to you ten times fold.
13. Write and specify your answer clearly as possible to
avoid questionable corrections.
14. Class monitor will be designated every meeting.
Monitoring means erasing the board, picking up
pieces of papers, turning on and off the lights and air-
conditioning unit, borrowing of overhead projector,
etc. there will be two monitoring student per session.
15. Portfolio should be submitted at the end of each
trimester. Therefore do not throw away your test
papers and assignments. They are legal documents in
case there is a question in your grades.
 TEXTBOOK AND REFERENCES
Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology, Bird, John, 5th
ed, Routledge, 2014
Alexander, Charles (2013), fundamentals of electric
circuits, McGraw Hill
Nahvi, mahmood (2011), Schaum’s outline of electric
circuit 5th ed, McGraw Hill
Boylestad, Introductory Circuit Analysis, 10th ed,
2003, Prentice Hall
Hayt, Engineering Circuit Analysis, 6th ed, 2002,
McGraw Hill
 COURSE OUTLINE
1. REVIEW OF NETWORK THEOREMS
2. DC AND AC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
3. AC ANALYSIS
4. IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE
5. AC NETWORK ANALYSIS
6. POWER AND POWER FACTOR CALCULATIONS
7. RESONANT AND TUNED CIRCUITS
8. TRANSIENT RESPONSE
 LESSON NO. 1
REVIEW OF NETWORK THEOREMS
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to
1. Recall the types of electric circuit network theorems
2. Apply network theorems in a given electric circuit
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear network
terminating on any two nodes and containing any
number of sources can be replaced by a single ideal
voltage source in series with an internal resistance.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit provides an equivalence
at the terminals only-the internal construction and
characteristics of the original network and thevenin
equivalent circuit are usually quite different. It was
formulated by Leon Charles Thevenin, French
telegraph engineer. it is similar to the study of
Hermann von Helmholtz(eye theory of vision) which
was applied to animal physiology and not to
communication or generator systems.
 EXAMPLE NO. 1
1. Find the equivalent Thevenin of the circuit to the left
of a-b and find the current thru RL = 6Ω, 16Ω and 36Ω
2. For the given sets of circuits, if 5Ω is connected across
point a-b, find the current flowing using Thevenin
equivalent circuit.
3. Find the current and voltage across the 3Ω resistor.
Norton Theorem states that any two terminal linear
bilateral DC network can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source and a parallel
resistor as shown. It was formulated by Edward L.
Norton of bell Lab.
 EXAMPLE NO. 2
1. Find the Norton equivalent circuit fo the given circuit
then find the current and voltage across 5Ω at point a-
b.
2. Find the current and voltage across 3Ω resistor.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to
provide power to a load. There are applications in areas
such as communications where it is desirable to
maximize the power delivered to a load. We now
address the problem of delivering the maximum power
to a load when given a system with known internal
losses. It should be noted that this will result in
significant internal losses greater than or equal to the
power delivered to the load.
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from
the load (RL = RTH ).
To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we
differentiate p with respect to RL and set the result
equal to zero.
 EXAMPLE NO. 3
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer
 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
Source transformation is another tool for simplifying
circuits. Basic to these tools is the concept of
equivalence. We recall that an equivalent circuit is one
whose v-i characteristics are identical with the original
circuit.
A source transformation is the process of replacing a
voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a current
source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
 EXAMPLE NO. 4
Using source transformation, find the current and
voltage across 8Ω resistor.
2. Find the voltage Vs if Is = 0.25A
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 1
1. Using Thevenin Equivalent circuit, find the voltage
and current in the 3Ω resistor.
2. If an 8Ω resistor is connected across point a-b, find its
current and voltage using Norton’s equivalent circuit.
3. Use source transformation to find the Vo
4. Using maximum power transfer theorem, find the
power being delivered to R.
 LESSON NO. 2
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
At the end of the lesson, the student would be able to:
1. State the operations of a DC and AC instruments
2. Know how to properly measure voltage, current and
resistive values of a circuit.
What is measurement?
-essentially an act or result of comparison between the
quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and
predetermined or predefined standard.
-measurand is the physical quantity to be measured.
-comparison of two quantities expressed in numerical
values.
Basic requirements for a meaningful measurements:
1. The standard used for comparison purposes must be
accurately defined and should be commonly accepted.
2. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be
probable (verifiable)
Functions and characteristics of instruments:
1. Indicate
2. Record
3. Control
A particular instrument may serve any one or all three of
these functions simultaneously. General purpose
electrical and electronic test instruments primarily
provides indicating and recording functions. The
instrument used in industrial process situation
frequently provides control functions. The entire
system may be called a control or automated system.
Evolution of instruments:
1. Mechanical
2. Electrical
3. Electronics
Mechanical instruments are very reliable for static and
stable conditions, however, they are unable to
respond rapidly to measurements of transient and
dynamic condition.
Electrical instruments are faster than mechanical system
indicating the output rapidly but uses the mechanical
movement of the meters. The average response is from
0.5 to 26 secs.
Electronics instruments is much faster because it uses
semiconductor devices and weak signals can be
detected.
Classification of Instrument
1. Absolute instrument – this instrument gives the
original magnitude of the quantity.
2. Secondary instrument – this instrument is calibrated
with comparison with absolute instrument which are
already been calibrated.
3. Deflection type instrument
4. Null type instrument
standard is defined as
International standard – they are defined by international
agreement. They are maintained at the international
bureau of weight and measure in Paris and are periodically
evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms
of fundamental units of Physics.
Primary standard – are maintained at the national standards
laboratories in different countries. The NBS in Washington
is responsible for maintaining the primary standard in
North America. Their primary function is to calibrate
secondary standard of the area.
Secondary standard – are the basic reference standard
used by measurement and calibration laboratories in
the industry to which they belong. Each industrial
laboratory is completely responsible for its own
secondary standards. Each laboratory periodically
sends its secondary standards to the national
standards lab for calibration.
Working standard – are the principal tools of a
measurements laboratory, they are used to check and
calibrate the instrument used in the lab or to make
comparison measurements in industrial application.
Error in measurement:
- Limiting errors: they are guarantor errors
- Instrumental errors: these arises from inherent short
comings of the instrument, misuse of the instrument
and loading of the instrument.
- Environmental error: due to conditions external to the
instrument.
- Observational error: due to parallax error
- Residual error: due to the change or fluctuation in
measurement.
Limiting errors:
Most manufacturer of measuring instruments state that
an instrument is accurate with a certain percentage of
full scale reading. For example, the manufacturer of a
certain voltmeter may specify the instrument to be
accurate within +/-2% with full scale deflection. This
specification is called the limiting error and means
that a full scale reading is guaranteed to be within the
limits of 2% of a perfectly accurate reading. However,
with readings that are less than full scale, the limiting
error will increase. Therefore, it is important to obtain
measurements as close as possible to full scale.
Units of measurements
Measurement units are the reference quantities that
have been selected as a basis for comparison for most
measurable quantities.
Quantity Base Unit Abbreviation
Length meter m
Mass kilogram Kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol
 DC Meters
The history of the basic meter movement used in DC
measurements can be traced to Hans Oersted’s
discovery of the relationship between current and
magnetism. Various types of devices that made use of
Oersted’s discovery were used. In 1881, Jacques
d’Arsonval developed and patented the moving coil
galvanometer. The same basic construction is widely
used in meter movements today.
This basic moving coil system, generally referred to as a
d’Arsonval meter movement or a permanent magnet
moving coil (PMMC) meter movement is shown in the
next slide. The moving coil mechanism is generally set
in a jewel and pivot suspension system to reduce
friction.
The d’Arsonval operates on the basic principle of the DC
motor. The figure shows a horseshoe shaped
permanent magnet with soft iron pole pieces attached
to it. Between the north-south pole pieces is a
cylindrical shaped soft iron core about which a coil of
fine wire is wound. This fine wire is wound on a very
light metal frame and mounted in a jewel setting so
that it can rotate freely. A pointer attached to the
mounting coil deflects up scale as the moving coil
rotates.
Current from a circuit in which measurements are being
made with the meter passes through the windings of
the moving coil. Current through the coil causes it to
behave as an electromagnet with its own north and
south poles. The poles of the electromagnet interact
with the poles of the permanent magnet causing the
coil to rotate. The pointer deflects up scale whenever
current flows in the proper direction in the coil. For
this reason, all DC meter movements show polarity
markings.
It should be noted that the d’Arsonval meter movement
is a current responding device. Regardless of the units
for which the scale is calibrated, the moving coil
responds to the amount of current through its
windings
The DC Ammeter
The basic DC Ammeter circuit is shown in the figure
below.
Where

Rsh = resistance of the shunt

Rm = internal resistance of the meter
movement
Ish = current through the shunt
Im = full scale deflection current of the meter
movement
I = full scale deflection current for the ammeter
the voltage across the meter movement is
Vm = ImRm

Since the shunt resistor is in parallel with the meter

movement, the voltage drop across the shunt is equal to the
voltage drop across the meter movement. That is,
Vsh = Vm

The current through the shunt is equal to the total current

minus the current through the meter movement;
Ish = I - Im
Therefore the shunt allows us to determine the shunt
resistance as

Vsh ImRm
Rsh = ------ = ------------
Ish I - Im
The purpose of designing the shunt circuit is to allow us to
measure a current I that is some number n times larger that
Im. The number n is called a multiplying factor and relates
total current and meter current as

I = nIm

Substituting this in place of I in the previous equation yields

Rm
Rsh = -----------
n - 1
 EXAMPLE NO. 5
1. Calculate the value of the shunt resistance required
to connect a 1 mA meter movement with a 90Ω
internal resistance into a 0 to 5mA ammeter
2. A 100μA meter movement with an internal resistance
of 100Ω is used in a 0 to 100mA ammeter. Find the
value of the required shunt resistance.
The Ayrton Shunt
It is also known as the universal shunt. One advantage
of the Ayrton shunt is that it eliminates the possibility
of the meter movement being in the circuit without
any shunt resistance. Another advantage is that it may
be used with a wide range of meter movements. Its
circuit is shown in the next slide.
 EXAMPLE NO. 6
Design an ayrton shunt to provide an ammeter with the
current ranges. A basic meter resistance of 1000Ω and
the full scale deflection current of 1mA.
Rm=1000

Rsh
Rc Rb Ra

+ 1A 100mA 10mA
The DC Voltmeter
The basic d’Arsonval meter movement can be converted
to a DC voltmeter by connecting a multiplier Rs in
series with the meter movement.

Im
+ Rs

Rm
The purpose of the multiplier is to extend the voltage
range of the meter and to limit current through the
d’Arsonval meter movement to a maximum full scale
deflection current. To find the value of the multiplier
resistor, we first determine the sensitivity S of the
meter movement. It is found by taking the reciprocal
of the full scale deflection current
S = 1/Ifs ohms per volt
The units of sensitivity express the value of the
multiplier resistance for the 1V range. To calculate the
value of the multiplier for voltage ranges greater than
1V,
Rs = S x range – internal resistance
 EXAMPLE NO. 7
1. Calculate the sensitivity of 100uA meter movement
which is to be used as a DC voltmeter.
2. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on
the 50V range of a DC voltmeter that used 500uA
meter movement with an internal resistance of 1KΩ
3. Calculate the value of the multiplier resistances for the
multiple range DC voltmeter shown.
4. Convert a basic D’Arsonval meter movement with an
internal resistance of 100Ω and a full scale deflection
current of 1 mA into a multirange DC voltmeter with
ranges from 0-15v and 0-50v.
Voltmeter Loading Effects
When using a voltmeter to measure the voltage across a
circuit component, the voltmeter circuit itself is in
parallel with the circuit component. Since the parallel
combination of the two resistors is less than either
resistor alone, the resistance seen by the source is less
with the voltmeter connected than without; therefore
the voltage across the component is less whenever the
voltmeter is connected.
The decrease in voltage may be negligible or it may be
appreciable, depending on the sensitivity of the
voltmeter being used. This effect is called voltmeter
loading and the resulting result is loading error.
 EXAMPLE NO. 8
Two different voltmeters are used to measure the voltage
across RB in the circuit. The meter specifications are
Meter A: S = 1KΩ/V, Rm = 0.2KΩ, range = 10V
Meter B: S = 20KΩ/V, Rm = 1.5KΩ, range = 10V
Calculate:
1. Voltage across RB without any meter connected
across it.
2. Voltage across RB when each meter is connected
3. Error in voltmeter reading.
 Ra = 25K

E = 30V

Rb = 5K
Ammeter Insertion Effect
Another source of error is that inserting an ammeter in a
circuit to obtain a current reading. All ammeters
contain some internal resistance that may range from a
low value of current meters capable of measuring in
the ampere range to an appreciable value of 1KΩ or
greater for microammeters. Inserting an ammeter
always increases the resistance of the circuit and
therefore always reduces the current in the circuit.
The insertion error is 1 – Im/Ie
 EXAMPLE NO. 9
A current meter has an internal resistance of 78Ω is used
to measure the current through resistor Rc in the
figure. Determine the percent of error of the reading
due to ammeter loading.
Ra=1K

E=3V Rb=1K Rc=2K

The Ohmmeter
The basic d’Arsonval meter movement may also be used
in conjunction with a battery and a resistor to
construct a simple ohmmeter circuit such as shown in
the figure.
The current through the meter movement can be
determined by Ohm’s Law
Ifs = E / (Rz + Rm)
And the value of the current at the circuit is
E
I = --------------------
Rz + Rm + Rx
The current I is less than the full scale current Ifs because
of the additional resistance Rx. The ratio of the current
I to the full scale is
I Rz + Rm
----- = ------------------
Ifs Rz + Rm + Rx
And let p = I/Ifs which is very useful when marking off
the scale on the meter face of the ohmmeter to
indicate the value of the resistor being measured.
 EXAMPLE NO. 10
1. An ohmmeter uses 1.5V battery and a basic 50uA
movement in an internal resistance of 1KΩ Calculate
the value of Rz required and the value of Rx that would
cause half scale deflection in the circuit.
2. A 1mA full scale deflection current meter movement is
to be used in an ohmmeter circuit. the meter
movement has an internal resistance Rm of 100Ω and a
3V battery will be used in the circuit. Mark off the face
of the meter for reading resistances.
3. Determine the current thru the meter Im when a 20Ω
resistor between terminals X and Y is measured on the
RX1 range.
Show that this same current flows thru the meter
movement when a 200Ω resistor is measured on the
RX10 range
Show that the same current flows when a 2KΩ resistor
is measured on the RX100 range.
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 2
1. Calculate the voltage drop developed across a
D’Arsonval meter movement having an internal
resistance of 850Ω and a full scale deflection current
of 100μA.
2. Which meter has a greater sensitivity: meter A
having of 0 to 10v and a multiplier resistor of 18KΩ
or meter B with a range of 0 to 300V and a 298KΩ
multiplier resistor? They have both an internal
resistance of 2KΩ.
3. Find the current through meter A and B in the circuit
4. Calculate the value of resistors R1 thru R5 in the
circuit.
5. Calculate the value of the resistors R1 to R3 of the
circuit
 LESSON NO. 3
AC AND PHASOR CONCEPTS
Lesson Objectives: at the end of the lesson, the student
would be able to:
1. Write the general form of a sinusoidal waveform
2. Obtain the average and rms values of a waveform
3. Identify the phase relationship of multiple
waveforms
 SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING
WAVEFORM
Definition of terms:
Waveform – the path traced by a quantity, such as the
voltage in the figure as a function of time, position,
degrees, radians, temperature and so on.
Instantaneous value – the magnitude of a waveform at
any instant of time.
Sinusoid – a signal that has the form of sine or cosine
function
Peak amplitude – the maximum value of a waveform as
measured from its average or mean value.
Peak value – the maximum instantaneous value of a
function as measured from the zero volt level
Peak to peak value – the full voltage between positive
and negative peaks of the waveform. It is the sum of
the magnitude of the positive and negative peaks.
Periodic waveform – a waveform that continually repeats
itself after the same time interval.
Period – the time interval between successive repetitions
of a periodic waveform.
Cycle – the portion of a waveform contained in one
period of time.
Frequency – the number of cycle that occur in 1 sec.
The general format for sinusoidal waveform is
i(t) = Im sin ωt or
v(t) = Vm = sin ωt
Where i(t) and v(t) = instantaneous current or voltage
Im and Vm = maximum current or voltage(peak
value of the waveform)
ω = angular velocity = 2πf = 2π/T
T = period
f = frequency
The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating
waveform whose shape is unaffected by the response
characteristics of R, l, and C elements. It means that if
the voltage across or current thru a resistor, a coil or
capacitor is sinusoidal in nature, the resulting voltage
or current is also sinusoidal in characteristics.
The frequency is the number of cycle that occur in 1 sec.
its unit is Hertz from German physicist Heinrich
Rudolph Hertz.
CCIR FREQUENCY BANDS
Allocations:
For television : 2 VHF and 1 UHF for low band and high
band respectively.
Channel 1 is used for military purposes (44MHz -
50MHz)
Low band VHF
High band VHF
UHF channels: channel 14-83 470Mhz – 890 Mhz
3G SMART 850MHz – 2100MHz (LTE-long term
evolution)
3G GLOBE 2100MHz
4G GLOBE 1800MHz
4G SMART 2100MHz
Phasor relations:
Recall: cos ωt = sin (ωt + 90)
sin ωt = cos (ωt – 90)
cos (-ωt) = cos ωt
sin(- ωt) = - sin ωt
- sin ωt = sin (ωt +/- 180)
- cos ωt = sin (ωt – 90) = sin (ωt + 270) etc
Acos(ωt) + Bsin(ωt) = C cos(ωt - θ)
where C = √A2 + B2 θ = tan-1 B/A
 EXAMPLE NO.10
1. Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the
sinusoidal function v(t) = 10 sin377t is 4V. What will be
the time for which this will be attained?
2. Add 4cos(100t) – 3sin(100t)
3. Find the value of A, B, C and θ if
44 cos (120πt – 30) + 27 sin (120πt + 45) = A cos 120πt +
B sin 120πt = C cos (120πt + θ)
What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal
waveform for each of the following sets?
1. v(t) = 10 sin (ωt + 30)
i(t) = 5 sin (ωt + 70)
2. v1(t) = 3 sin (ωt + 60)
v2(t) = 4 sin (ωt – 20)
3. i(t) = -2 cos (ωt – 60)
v(t) = 3 sin (ωt – 150)
4. i(t) = 10 cos (30t + 10)
v(t) = 3 sin (30t – 10)
5. i(t) = -sin (2t + 30)
v(t) = -sin (2t – 45)
Average and effective values
The average value of a sinusoidal waveform is,
Vave = 1/T ∫ v(t) dt
Effective value (RMS) – is the amount of steady (DC)
current which when flowing through a given circuit for
a given time produces the same heat as the alternating
current when flowing in the same circuit for the same
time.
Vrms = √1/T ∫ v(t)2 dt
Form factor FF = Vrms/Vave
 EXAMPLE NO.11
Compute for the average and rms values of the given
waveforms
 ASSIGNMENT NO.3
1. If v(t) = 40V at α = 300 and t = 1ms, determine the
mathematical expression for the sinusoidal voltage.
2. A voltage expression is given as v1 (t) = 4 sin (20t
+50)V. Find its phase relationship with
a. i(t) = 6 sin (20t + 40)
b. v2(t) = 10 cos (20t - 40)
c. i(t) = - 3 sin (20t + 30)
d. i(t) = -3 cos (20t + 90)
3. Find the angle for which i1(t) = 20 sin(ωt + 30) lags
i2(t).
a. i2(t) = -10 sin (ωt – 30)
b. i2(t) = 5 cos (ωt + 45)
c. i2(t) = -4 cos (ωt + 60)
4. Find the average and rms value of the waveform
 PHASOR
A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase angle of a sinusoid.
Phasor is a radius vector that has a constant magnitude
at a fixed angle from the positive real axis and that
represents a sinusoidal voltage or current in the vector
domain.
Phasor diagram is a snapshot of the phasors that
represent a number of sinusoidal waveform at t = 0.
In the next slide, we can see the sum of two waveforms
v1 and v2. Note that in the figure v2 passes through the
horizontal axis at t = 0, requiring that the radius vector
be on the horizontal axis to ensure a vertical projection
of zero volts at t = 0. its length in (a) is equal to the
peak value of the sinusoid as required by the radius
vector. The other sinusoid has passed thru 900 of its
rotation by the time t = 0 is reached and therefore has
its maximum vertical projection as shown in (a)
 EXAMPLE NO. 12
Convert the following to phasor domain
1. √2(50) sinωt
2. 69.9 sin(ωt + 70)
3. 45 cos(ωt)
4. 100 cos(100t -60)
Convert to sinusoidal expression at 60Hz
1. I = 20∟30
2. V = 115∟-60
Find the input voltage of the circuit with v1 = 10 sin(377t
+ 60) and v2 = 20sin (377t – 45) at 60Hz.
Determine the current i2(t) if the total current is
120sin(ωt + 60)mA and the current i1(t) = 80sin(ωt ).
Find the sinusoids represented by
a. I = -3 + j4
b. V = j8ej-0.349
 RESPONSE OF PURELY RESISTIVE
ELEMENT
For a purely resistive element, the voltage across and the
current flowing through it is always in phase and their
peak value is related by Ohm’s Law.
 RESPONSE OF PURELY INDUCTIVE
ELEMENT
For an inductor, vL leads iL by 90 or iL lags vL by 90.
inductive reactance is the opposition to the flow of
current.
RESPONSE OF PURELY CAPACITIVE
ELEMENT
For a capacitor, ic leads vc by 90, or vc lags ic by 90.
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to the flow of
charge.
 EXAMPLE NO. 13
1. The voltage across the resistor is indicated to be v(t)
= 100 sin 377t V. find the sinusoidal expression for
the current if the resistor is 10Ω. Sketch the curve for
v(t) and i(t).
2. Repeat no. 1 if the voltage is v(t) = 25 sin (377t + 60)
V.
3. The current through a 10Ω resistor is i = 40sin(377t +
30). Find the sinusoidal expression or the voltage.
4. The current through a 0.1H coil is i = 10 sin (377t) A.
find the sinusoidal expression for the voltage across
the coil.
5. Repeat no. 4 if the current is i = 7sin(377t – 60)
6. The voltage across a 1uF capacitor is v = 20sin400t.
Find the sinusoidal expression of the current.
7. Repeat no. 6 if v = 10sin(400t + 30)
8. For the given pairs of voltage and current, determine
whether the element involved is a capacitor, inductor
or a resistor and determine the value of the element.
a. v(t) = 100 sin (2t +45)
i(t) = 20 sin (2t + 45)
b. v(t) = 1000 sin (377t + 10)
i(t) = 25 sin (377t – 80)
c. v(t) = 500 sin (100t + 30)
i(t) = 100 sin (100t + 120)
DC high and low frequency effects on L and C
For DC circuits, f = 0 therefore the reactance of a coil is
XL = 0 (shorted), at high frequency XL = ∞(open)
Same as true with the capacitor.
For applied frequency, the resistance of the resistor
remains constant as frequency increases, while for the
inductive reactance increases linearly and the
capacitive reactance decreases nonlinearly.
9. At what frequency will the reactance of a 200mH
inductor match the resistance level of a 5kΩ resistor?
10. At what frequency will an inductor of 5mH have the
same reactance as a capacitor of 0.2uF
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 4
1. What is the inductive reactance of a 2H coil for DC and
for 120Hz and 2000Hz.
2. Determine the frequency at which a 10H inductance
and 0.33uF capacitance same with the reactance of
243Ω
3. Determine the frequency at which a 1uF and 10mH will
have the same reactance.
4. For the network shown, find the current in each
element and the total current of delivered by the
source in both phasor and sinusoidal functions.

4mH
2uF

e(t) = 141.42sin(10000t + 60)V

 LESSON NO. 4
POWER, IMPEDANCE AND
ADMITTANCE
At the end of the lesson the student would be able to
1. Calculate the power of an AC circuits
2. Differentiate impedance from admittance
3. Calculate the total admittance and impedance of a
circuit
4. Apply ohm’s law in an Ac circuits
 POWER AND POWER FACTOR
For any load in a sinusoidal AC network, the voltage
across the load and the current through the load will
vary in a sinusoidal nature. Let
v(t) = Vm sin (ωt + θv) and
i(t) = Im sin (ωt + θi)
Then the power is defined by
p = v(t)i(t)
RECALL: sinAsinB = [cos(A-B) – cos(A+B)]/2
The magnitude of average power delivered is
independent of whether v leads I or I leads v. therefore
V m Im
P = ----------- cos θ
2
Where P = average power in watts
θ = |θv - θi|
The effective or rms power is
P = Veff Ieff cos θ
 EXAMPLE NO. 14
1. Find the average power dissipated and the power factor
in a network whose inputs are stated below:
a. i(t) = 5 sin (ωt + 40)
v(t) = 10 sin (ωt + 40)
b. i(t) = 20 sin (ωt + 40)
v(t) = 20 sin (ωt + 70)
c. i(t) = - 3 sin (ωt + 60)
v(t) = 15 cos (ωt – 30)
In the equation P = Vm Im /2 cos θ, the factor that has
significant control over the delivery of power level is
the cos θ. No matter how large the voltage or current, if
cos θ = 1, the power delivered is maximum. Since it has
such control, the expression was given the name power
factor and is defined by
Pf = cos θ
For purely resistive load, the phase angle between v(t)
and i(t) is 0o and the power factor is 1. the power
delivered is therefore maximum.
For purely inductor or capacitive load, the power
delivered is the minimum value of zero watts, even
though the current has the same peak value.
For situations where the load is the combination of
resistive and reactive load, the power factor will vary
between 0 and 1.
The terms leading and lagging are often written in
conjunction with the power factor. They are defined by
the current through the load, if the current leads the
voltage across the load, the load has a leading power
factor and so on. In other words, capacitive networks
have leading power factors and inductive networks
have lagging power factor.
 EXAMPLE NO. 15
Determine the power factor of the following and
indicate whether lagging or leading or neither.
1. v(t) = 50 sin (377t – 20)
i(t) = 2 sin (377t + 40)
2. v(t) = 120 sin (100t + 80)
i(t) = 5 sin (100t + 30)
3. Veff = 20V
Ieff = 5A , P = 100W
What is an impedance?
it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the current in an
alternating current (AC) circuit. Impedance extends
the concept of resistance to AC circuits, and possesses
both magnitude and phase.
The impedance of a resistive element is ZR = R∟0
The impedance of an inductive element is ZL = XL∟90
The impedance of a capacitive element is ZC = XC∟-90
Their impedance diagrams are:
 EXAMPLE NO. 16
1. Draw the impedance diagram of the circuit given
below and find the total impedance
2. Determine the input impedance to the series network
in the figure. Draw the impedance diagram.
3. Determine the current flowing in the circuit for the
network below. And find the voltage of each element.
Draw the phasor diagram and find the total power and
power factor.
4. Find the following:
a. Total impedance and current
b. The voltage in each element
c. The total power, power in each element and total
power factor
d. Impedance and phasor diagram
5. Three elements are connected in series, 6Ω resistor,
10Ω inductor and 4Ω capacitor. If the current flowing
in the circuit is 2.5sin(400t + 70)A,
a. Find the voltage in each element
b. Find the power in each element
c. Draw the phasor and the impedance diagram
d. The total voltage
 ADMITTANCES
In AC circuits, we define admittance (Y) as being equal
to 1/Z. the unit of measure for admittance as defined
by the SI system is siemens, which has a symbol of S. it
is the measure of how well an AC circuit will admit or
allow current to flow in the circuit. The larger its value,
the heavier the amount of current flow for the same
applied potential.
The reciprocal of reactance (1/X) is called susceptance
and is measure of how susceptible an element is to the
passage of current thru it. Susceptance is also
measured in siemens and is represented by
B = 1/X
For inductive susceptance
BL = 1/XL
For capacitive susceptance
BC = 1/XC
The admittance diagram
 EXAMPLE NO. 17
1. Find the total impedance and admittance of the of the
given circuits.
2. If a 100∟45 v is impressed at the input of the circuit in
number 1. find the voltage and current in each branches.
3. Find the admittance of each parallel branch and
determine the total admittance and impedance.
4. If a 100∟60v is impressed at the input of the circuit in
problem 3. find the voltage, current, power in each
branch.
5. An ac circuit has an impressed voltage of 80∟-60v to
the input and produces a current of 20∟-45A. Find the
series and parallel element of the circuit
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 5
1. Find the voltage in phasor and sinusoidal form for
each element below
2. Find the current in each element below. f = 60hz
3. Find the type of series and parallel element that must
be closed in the container for the indicated voltage and
current at the terminal.
4. For the circuit shown find
a. Total impedance and current(phasor and sinusoidal)
b. The voltage in each element(phasor and sinusoidal)
c. The average power and the power in each element
and total power factor.(leading or lagging?)
d. The phasor and impedance diagram
5. For the given circuit find
a. The total admittance
b. The total voltage and current in each element(phasor
and sinusoidal)
c. The average power, the power in each element and
the total power factor
d. The admitttance and phasor diagram.
 LESSON NO. 5
AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
Lesson objectives: at the end of the lesson, the student
would be able to
1. Apply network theorems to determine the current,
voltage and power of a given AC circuits
 EXAMPLE NO. 18
Using the circuit below find the mesh current and node
voltages
BY Thevenin and Norton Theorem find the voltage
across and current flowing thru the 2Ω capacitive
reactance.
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 6
Find the mesh current and node voltages
 LESSON NO. 6
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Lesson Objectives: at the end of the lesson, the student
would be able to
1. Relate the DC power to AC power
2. Apply power factor correction in AC circuits
In the previous lesson, we had studied the average power
of a given AC circuits. In this lesson we now examine
the total power equation in a slightly different form
and there will be additional power of two types:
apparent and reactive power.
For any system, the power delivered to a load at any
instant is defined by
P = VI
In this case, since V and I are sinusoidal quantities,
V = Vmsin(ωt + θ)
And
I = Imsin(ωt)
The chosen V and I include all possibilities because, if
the load is purely resistive, θ = 0, purely inductive or
capacitive θ = 90 or – 90, respectively.
For a network that is primarily inductive, θ is positive (V
leads I) and for a network is that primarily capacitive θ
is negative (I leads V).
In a resistive circuit, the total power delivered will be
dissipated in the form of heat. The average or real
power is
P = VI = VmIm/2 = I2R = V2/R in watts
The energy dissipated by the resistor over a one full cycle
of the applied voltage is
W = Pt or VI/f1 in joules
Apparent power – it is the power delivered to a load
without consideration of the effects of a power factor
angle of the load. It is determined solely by the
product of the terminal voltage and the current of the
load.
S = VI in volt-ampere or VA
Since V = IZ and I = V/Z
S = I2Z or V2/Z
The average power to the load is
P = VI cosθ
But
S = VI
Therefore
P = Scosθ
And the power factor
pf = cosθ = P/S
In general, power equipment is rated in volt-ampere or
in KVA not in watts. By knowing the volt-ampere
rating and the rated voltage of a device, we can readily
determine the maximum current rating.
For example, a device rated at 10KVA at 200V has a
maximum current rating of 50A when operated under
the rated conditions. The volt-ampere rating of a piece
of equipment is equal to the wattage rating only when
the pf is 1.
Reactive power – it is the power associated with reactive
elements that provides a measure of the energy
associated with setting up the magnetic and electric
field of inductive and capacitive elements respectively.
Q = VI sinθ in volt-ampere reactive, VAR
Where θ is the phase angle between V and I
For the inductor
QL = VI in VAR
= I2XL
= V2/XL
The power factor pf = 0
The energy stored by the inductor during the positive
portion of the cycle is
W = LI2 or VI/ω1 in joules
Where I = rms value of current
Or the capacitor,
QC = VI
= I2XC
= V2/XC
The energy stored by the capacitor during the positive
portion of the cycle
W = CV2 or VI/ω1
The power triangle
The three quantities average power, apparent power and
reactive power can be related in the vector domain by
S=P+Q
With P = P∟0 QL = QL∟90 or QC = QC∟-90
Therefore
S = P + j(QL – QC)
Since the reactive power and the average power are
always angled 90 to each other, the three powers are
related by Pythagorean Theorem.
S2 = P2 + Q2
It is particularly interesting that the equation
S = VI*
Will provide the vector form of the apparent power of a
system.
 EXAMPLE NO. 19
1. For the R-L circuit given below, find the apparent
power using two methods
2. For the R-C circuit find the apparent power in two
Methods
3. Find the total number of watts, volt-ampere reactive,
volt-ampere and power factor of the given network.
Sketch the power triangle.
4. For the system shown, find
a. The average power, apparent power and reactive
power and power factor
b. Find the total number of watts, volt-ampere reactive
and volt-ampere and power factor of the system.
c. Find the source current I.
5. A 5 hp motor with a 0.6 lagging power factor and an
efficiency of 90% is connected to a 208V, 60hz supply.
a. Establish the power triangle for the load
b. Determine the power factor capacitor that must be
placed in parallel with the load to raise the power
factor to unity.
c. Determine the change in supply current from the
uncompensated to the compensated system
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 7
1. For the system shown, find
a. The total real power, apparent power and reactive
power
b. The power factor
c. Construct the power triangle
d. The total current
2. The loading of a factory on a 1000v, 60hz system
includes:
20kw heating load (unity power factor)
Induction motor with 10kw input power 0.7 lagging
power factor
5kw lighting with 0.85 lagging power factor
a. Establish the power triangle for the total loading on
the supply
b. Determine the power factor capacitor required to
raise the power factor to 0.98 and unity.
c. Determine the change in supply current from the
uncompensated to the compensated system at unity
power factor.
3. A small industrial plant has a 10kw heating load with
unity power factor and a 20KVA inductive load due to a
bank of induction motors with power factor 0.7
lagging. If the supply is 1200V at 60Hz, determine the
capacitive element required to raise the power factor to
95%. And compare the levels of current drawn from
the power supply.
 LESSON NO. 7
RESONANCE
At the end of the lesson, the student would be able to
1. Differentiate series resonance to parallel resonance
2. Calculate the maximum and minimum frequency for
series and parallel circuits
3. Verify the importance of quality factor
The resonant circuit is a combination of R, L and C
element having a frequency response characteristics
similar to the curve below
Note that the response is a maximum frequency fr,
decreasing to the right and left of this frequency, in
other words, for a particular range of frequencies the
response will be near or equal to the maximum. The
frequencies to the far left or right have very low voltage
or current levels and for all practical purposes, have
little effect on the system’s response. The radio or TV
receiver has a response curve for each broadcast
station as in the figure. When the receiver is set or
tuned to a particular station it is set on or near the
frequency fr
Stations at frequencies to the far right or left of this
resonant frequency are not carried through with
significant power to affect the program of interest. The
tuning process (setting the dial to fr) is describe as a
result of the terminology tuned circuits. When the
response is at or near the maximum, the circuit is said
to be in state of resonance.
 Series Resonance
A resonant circuit whether series or parallel should have
an inductive and a capacitive element. A resistive
element will always be present due to the internal
resistance of the source Rs and any added resistance to
control the shape of the resonance curve.
ZT = R + jXL – jXc
At resonance XL = Xc
Therefore ZTs = R
Therefore the frequency at resonance
fs = 1/2π√LC
The current thru the circuit at resonance is
I = V∟0 / R∟0
and since XL = XC then VL = VC at resonance.
The quality factor (Q) of a series resonant circuit is the
ratio of the reactive power of either the inductor or
capacitor to the average power of the resistor at
resonance.
Qs = reactive power/average power
= I2 XL/ I2 R
= XL / R
In terms of resonant frequency
Qs = 1/R [√L/C]
The inductive reactance versus the frequency
Capacitive reactance versus the frequency
Series resonance versus frequency
Impedance versus frequency
Series circuit current at resonance
Phase angle of a series resonance
Bandwidth of a series resonance circuit
Bandwidth of a series RLC circuit
1. At resonant frequency
XL= XC the ω of the circuit will be
2. The current at resonant frequency
at ωr ZT is minimum I is maximum
Imax = Vmax/ZT
3. At low cut-off frequency
PHPF = 0.5Pmax
I = 0.707Imax
Z = √2 x R
X = -R (capacitive)
Therefore ωL = -R/2L + √(R/2L)2 + 1/LC
4. Upper cut-off frequency
X = R (inductive)
ωH = R/2L + √ (R/2L)2 + 1/LC
5. Bandwidth
BW = fr/Q
= R/2πL
6. Quality factor
Q = ωrL/R = 1/ωrCR = 1/R x √L/C
 EXAMPLE NO. 20
1. A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of
30Ω, a capacitor of 2uF and an inductor of 20mH is
connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has
a constant output of 9 volts at all frequencies.
Calculate, the resonant frequency, the current at
resonance, the voltage across the inductor and
capacitor at resonance, the quality factor and the
bandwidth of the circuit.
2. A series resonance circuit with R = 2Ω , XL = 10Ω and
XC = 10Ω has an input voltage of 12sin(377t + 30). At
resonant frequency of 5000hz, Find
a. The total current
b. The voltage in each elements
c. The quality factor of the circuit
d. the bandwidth
e. The maximum and the half power frequency
3. The bandwidth of a series resonant circuit is 500hz.
a. If the resonant frequency is 4500hz, what is the
quality factor?
b. If R = 18Ω, what is the value of the XL at resonant?
c. Find the inductance and capacitance of the circuit.
 For resonance to occur in any circuit it must have at
least one inductor and one capacitor.
 Resonance is the result of oscillations in a circuit as
stored energy is passed from the inductor to the
capacitor.
 Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary
part of the transfer function is zero.
 At resonance the impedance of the circuit is equal to
the resistance value as Z = R.
 At low frequencies the series circuit is capacitive
as: XC > XL, this gives the circuit a leading power factor.
 At high frequencies the series circuit is inductive
as: XL > XC, this gives the circuit a lagging power factor.
 The high value of current at resonance produces very
high values of voltage across the inductor and
capacitor.
 Series resonance circuits are useful for constructing
highly frequency selective filters. However, its high
current and very high component voltage values can
cause damage to the circuit.
 The most prominent feature of the frequency response
of a resonant circuit is a sharp resonant peak in its
amplitude characteristics.
 Because impedance is minimum and current is
maximum, series resonance circuits are also
called Acceptor Circuits.
Parallel Resonance
A parallel circuit containing a resistance, R, an
inductance, L and a capacitance, C will produce
a parallel resonance (also called anti-resonance)
circuit when the resultant current through the parallel
combination is in phase with the supply voltage. At
resonance there will be a large circulating current
between the inductor and the capacitor due to the
energy of the oscillations, then parallel circuits
produce current resonance.
A parallel resonant circuit stores the circuit energy in the
magnetic field of the inductor and the electric field of
the capacitor. This energy is constantly being
transferred back and forth between the inductor and
the capacitor which results in zero current and energy
being drawn from the supply.
This is because the corresponding instantaneous values
of IL and IC will always be equal and opposite and
therefore the current drawn from the supply is the
vector addition of these two currents and the current
flowing in IR
In the solution of AC parallel resonance circuits we know
that the supply voltage is common for all branches, so
this can be taken as our reference vector. Each parallel
branch must be treated separately as with series
circuits so that the total supply current taken by the
parallel circuit is the vector addition of the individual
branch currents.
Then there are two methods available to us in the
analysis of parallel resonance circuits. We can calculate
the current in each branch and then add together or
calculate the admittance of each branch to find the
total current.
At resonance the parallel circuit produces the same
equation as for the series resonance circuit. Therefore,
it makes no difference if the inductor or capacitor are
connected in parallel or series.
Also at resonance the parallel LC tank circuit acts like an
open circuit with the circuit current being determined
by the resistor, R only. So the total impedance of a
parallel resonance circuit at resonance becomes just
the value of the resistance in the circuit and Z = R
At resonance, the impedance of the parallel circuit is at
its maximum value and equal to the resistance of the
circuit creating a circuit condition of high resistance
and low current. Also at resonance, as the impedance
of the circuit is now that of resistance only, the total
circuit current, I will be “in-phase” with the supply
voltage, VS
We can change the circuit’s frequency response by
changing the value of this resistance. Changing the
value of R affects the amount of current that flows
through the circuit at resonance, if
both L and C remain constant. Then the impedance of
the circuit at resonance Z = RMAX is called the
“dynamic impedance” of the circuit
Impedance in a parallel circuit
Susceptance at resonance
we can see that at the resonant frequency point were it
crosses the horizontal axis the total circuit susceptance
is zero. Below the resonant frequency point, the
inductive susceptance dominates the circuit producing
a “lagging” power factor, whereas above the resonant
frequency point the capacitive susceptance dominates
producing a “leading” power factor.
that the impedance of a parallel circuit at resonance is
equivalent to the value of the resistance and this value
must, therefore represent the maximum dynamic
impedance (Zd) of the circuit as shown.
Current in Parallel Resonance
At resonance, currents IL and IC are equal and cancelling
giving a net reactive current equal to zero. Then at
resonance the above equation becomes
Parallel Current Circuit at
Resonance
The quality factor for parallel resonance circuit is given
as
Q = R/2πfL = 2πfRC = R √C/L

Note that the Q-factor of a parallel resonance circuit is

the inverse of the expression for the Q-factor of the
series circuit. Also in series resonance circuits the Q-
factor gives the voltage magnification of the circuit,
whereas in a parallel circuit it gives the current
magnification.
 EXAMPLE NO. 21
1. A parallel resonance network consisting of a resistor of
60Ω, a capacitor of 120uF and an inductor of 200mH is
connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which has
a constant output of 100 volts at all frequencies.
Calculate, the resonant frequency, the quality factor
and the bandwidth of the circuit, the circuit current at
resonance and current magnification.
Resonant Frequency using Impure Inductor
fr = 1/2π √1/LC – [RS/L]2

Where: L is the inductance of the coil, C is the parallel

capacitance and RS is the DC resistive value of the coil.
 ASSIGNMENT NO. 8
1. A series circuit consisting of a 20Ω resistor, an 88.3uF
capacitor and a variable inductor is connected to a
120V, 60hz source.
a. Calculate the inductance, current and the voltage
drop across the inductor.
b. Calculate the value of the inductance, the current
and the voltage drop across the inductor when the
latter has its maximum value
2. A series circuit consisting of a 15Ω resistor, 0.06H
inductor, and a variable capacitor connected to a 120v,
60hz source.
a. Calculate the value of C, the total current and the
voltage drop across the capacitor for the condition at
resonance.
b. Determine the value of C, the total current and the
voltage drop across the capacitor when the latter has
its maximum value.
3. Given the circuit below
For the condition of resonance calculate the two values
of L and the two values of line current