Theories and Models of communication----

 In the years before World War 11 mass communication per see was hardly investigated.
Scholars from different academic disciplines like history, sociology, looked into specific role
of the mass medium bringing about changes in society relevant to their discipline.
 Some basic studies were conducted but lacked focus and direction. Decades later
communication was studied in North American Universities where degree programs were
offered in mass communication studies.
 The entire subject of communication can be studied through two schools of thought: The
Semiotics School and The Process School.

The Semiotics School.

 The foundations for semiotics was laid by Morris-1946, for the theory of languages or
symbols. The semiotics school approaches communication as a generation of meaning a
mixture of signs, symbols and messages, which the sender wants to convey and expects a
specific reaction from the receiver of the messages—sign itself.
 This study covers the ways the variety of codes have developed in order to meet the needs
of society and culture. The focus of the semiotics school is in the text.
 He divided it into three areas of general study : Syntactic (The study of how symbols relate
to each other) , Semantics ( A study of symbol to referent relationships) and Pragmatics ( A
study of how symbols relate to people).
The Process School.
 This school of thought looks at communication as a process, a simple transmission of
messages and meanings which the sender wants to convey irrespective of the reaction of
the receiver or his interaction. Eg—Works of Art, culture and music falls under this
category, because messages are not created any motive, but as an expression of the
senders feelings and emotions.
 The receiver is free to interpret the message in own way.
 The process school of thought is also called The Linear School.

The difference between the two schools of thought

 The Linear process schools and their models give the text no more attention than other
stages in the process; while the semiotics school of thought attaches primary importance
to the text.
 The status of the receiver or reader who in semiotics is seen performing a very important
role. The reader ascertains meanings to the text.
Models
 The simplest defination of a model is that is an analogue.
 Models represent system or processes. They are a symbolic way at looking at systems to help us
to think about them more lucidly.
 Models give us an idea of complicated objects or events in a general way.
 The most important purpose of model building is to assist in the development of more precise
theories. Theories are not models and the most fundamental difference between them is that
the theory is an explanation and a model is a representation.
 A model can be constructed to describe a particular form of behavior of which no theory exists
or is inadequate.

Aristotles Model -----

 This model was developed some 2000 years ago. Aristotle includes in this model the 5 essential
elements of communication; Speaker, Speech or Message of communication, Audience, Effect
and Occasion.
 In his rhetoric Aristotle advices the speaker on constructing a speech for different audiences on
different occasion for different effects. This model is most applicable for public speaking.
Linear, Interactive and Transaction models
Lasswells Model- 1948

 Lasswell states that in order to understand the process of mass communication one has to
 Lasswell states that in order to understand the process of mass communication one has to
understand each of the stages.
understand each of the stages.
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 Untill the 1960s Lasswells questions dominaqted the scene of mass media reseach.
 Untill the 1960s Lasswells questions dominaqted the scene of mass media reseach.
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Shannon and Weaver’s Model –1949.

 This model is also known as the Engineering Model of communication. It is a good example of
process school of thought. It’s also referred to as the Mathematical theory of communication as
it provided an approach to problem of how to send maximum information in a given channel.
 It introduced the concept of Noise for the first time
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it provided an approach to problem of how to send maximum information in a given channel.
 It introduced the concept of Noise for the first time
 As engineers during the World War 11, Shannon and weavers primary concern was to find out
the most effective means of human communication.
Newcomb’s Model –1953
 This is the first models to introduce the role of communication in a society or a social
relationship.
 The primary role according to Newcomb is to maintain equilibrium in a sicial relationship.

Charles E. Osgood’s Model –1954

 Here communication is seen as a dynamic process where there is an healthy interactive
relationship between the source and the reciever.

Wilbur Schramm’s Model.

 Schramm’s proceeded from a simple human communication model to a more complicated
model that accounted for the accumulated experiences of two individuals trying to
communicate then to a model that considered human communication with interaction between
two individuals.
 In the second model Schramm introduces the notion that only what is shared in the field of both
source and destination is actually communicated, because only that proportion of the signal is
common to both of them.
 The third model sees communication as an interactive process with both the receiver and the
sender acting as encoder, interpreter, transmitter and receiver of signals.
Communication Theories
Since the WW11 several studies have been conducted in the field of communication. Most of
such studies are based on the impact of communication and media on the human society. One
of the earliest studies in this category is the Hypodermic/Bullet theory.
Hypodermic /Bullet Theory
This theory was based on the principle that media is all powerful and its consumers are passive
and naïve. It further stated messages channeled through media are like MAGIC BULLETS which
not only strikes the audience immediately but also influences them to take the desired action
immediately.
Communication uses and Effect Theories.
1. Agenda Setting Theory
2. Reinforcement Theory
3. Catharsis and Narcosis Theory
4. Theory of Incidental Effects
5. Cultivation Theory
6. Spiral of Silence Theory
7. Third Person Effect
8. Social Learning Theory
9. Uses and Gratification Theory.
1—Agenda Setting Theory
 The first systematic study of Agenda Setting was conducted by Malcom Mc C omb and
Donald Shaw during the American Presidential Campaign of 1968; the duo focused on the
100 undecided voters of chapple Hill who were susceptible to the media’s agenda
 They made a content analysis of all the media channels used by residents of chappell hill;
and found an interlink between the priorities of issues identified by the media and those
identified by the group of respondents.

2---Reinforcement Theory
This is also called The limited effects model. Klapper who propounded this theory stated that
mass media has a limited effects on its audience. It merely reinforces existing values and
attitudes. Lazarsfield and Merton further stated that the mass media cannot be relied upon to
work for changes.
3---Catharsis and Narcosis Theory
 Narcosis Theory;
This theory was propounded by Lazarsfield, Merton and Winn. They argued that media have a
“Narcostising dysfunction”. They stated that the audience are so engrossed/ lulified during their
exposure to mass media particularly A/V Media, that it becomes difficult for them to make
logical reactions. It engrosses the audience attention to the extent that it prevents them from
taking any logical decisions.
 Cathasis Theory
 This theory was propounded by Semyour Feshbatch. Feshbatch’s experiments in the lab,
showed that media content particularly non-violence helps to vent out frustration. He
studied the same by setting up two groups of in control and experimental setup
 Students of both were exposed to verbal abuse, later the experimental group was shown a
violent film while the other group was not shown the same.
 Findings indicated that the experimental group had feelings of less hostility than that of
control group.
4—Theory of Incidental Effects
 This theory was formulated by Aldous Huxley.
 He stated that media effects were limited to copying of style, mannerism, etc.
 Huxley stated that Television could be an effective agent of incidental learning among
children.

5----Cultivation Theory / Cultural Indicators Theory.

 This theory was formulated by George Gebner.
 Heavy TV viewing tends to induce audiences to adopt perception and values which were
constantly portrayed in different programs.
 This phenomenon was more dominant among heavy TV watchers than those who watched
less. Eg; soaps on TV inculcated a picture of affluence all around.
6—Spiral of Silence Theory
 This theory was formulated by Noell Neumann.
 This theory postulates that individuals have a quasi-statistical sense organ by by which they
determine their opinion represent the minority point of view. In such a case they remain
silent.
 In her analysis of German elections, Newmann states that individuals hate to be isolated
from their fellow beings and thus tend to follow the dominant opinion.
 Thus mass media shapes ;
 As to which opinion is dominant
 Which impressions are increasing
 Which opinions one can utter in public without fear of being isolated.

7—The Third Person Effect

 The theory was propounded by W. Phillips Davison.
 The hypothesis suggests people tend to over estimate the effect of mass media on others
rather than themselves.
 Mass communication messages will have greater impact on others than on themselves; due
to this perception they take action.
 Thus people are more influenced by media more than they really think they are.
8---Social Learning Theory
 The theory was propounded by Albert Bandura
 Many effects of mass media can happen through the process of social learning.
 Human beings learn things by observation and model behavior.

9---Uses and Gratification Theory

 The theory is propounded by Elihu katz, Denis Mcquail and Michale Gurewitch.
 This theory studied how the audience utilized the media.
 Based on audience a set of gratifications were determined
1. Cognitive Needs (Acquiring Information)
2. Affective Needs (emotions, pleasure and aesthetic experience)
3. Personal Integrative Needs (Strengthening credibility, confidence and status)
4. Social Integrative Need ( Strengthening contacts with family)
5. Tension Release needs ( Escape and diversion)
Normative Theories of Press
 AUTHORITARIAN THEORY:
 The term was first coined by Sibert which refers to an arrangement in which the press is
subordinate to state power. This theory is more relevant to repressive or dictatorial regime
where there is press censorship.
 FREE PRESS THEORY:
 Also known as the Libertarian Theory, is based on the fundamental right of an individual to
freedom of expression. The same is seen in the 1st amendment to the American constitution.
 However Milton, Staurt and Mill state that press freedom cannot be provided unrestricted.
 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
 The term was first originated in the Hutchins committee report -1947 that was appointed in
the united states. According to it the press had not fulfilled the informational, social and
moral needs of the society.
 It led to the formation of such bodies as the Press Councils.
 COMMUNIST MEDIA THEORY
 Also known as the SOVIET MEDIA THEORY, is based on the basic tenets of MAX and ANGELS.
 It envisages that the media should be under the control of the working class. The was no
private ownership of media and was required to serve positive functions in the society
relating to information, education, motivation and mobilization.
 According to this theory media must work under the control of the state.