Submitted To : Sir Faisal Mumtaz

Submitted By : Rabbia Rafaqat

Zoya Sultana
Marukh Naveed
Fariha Sana
 Table of content:
 Argument
 Deductive reasoning
 Inductive reasoning
 Recognizing arguments
 Argument
 An argument is a group of statements including
one or more premises and one and only one
conclusion.
 A statement is a sentences that is either true or
false, such as;
“The cat is on the table.”
Many sentences are not statements, such as;
“close the door , please”.
“ how old are you?”
 A premises is a statement in an argument
that provides reason or support for the
conclusion. There can be one or more many
premises in a single argument.

 Your common sense will help you to find

conclusion and premises.
 Examples
 Premises 1 : long- haired cats shed all over
the house.

 Premises 2 : long-haired cats have a lot of

fleas.

 Conclusion: You should not get a long-

haired cat.
 Premises are the supporting statements of an
argument.

 Conclusion is the statement that follows from

premises.

 premises 1: Coffee is a bean.

 Premises 2: A bean is a food.
 Conclusion: Therefore, coffee is a food.
 Deductive Argument
Starts with a general rule (a premise)
which we know to be true. Then, from
that rule, we make a true
conclusion about something specific.

General Specific
 Deductive reasoning
 The process of reasoning from known facts to
conclusions. When you reason deductively, you
can say “therefore” with certainty. If your facts
were firm to begin with, then your conclusions
will also be firm.

 Deductive reasoning start with an assumed

hypothesis, theory or truth. This assumption may
be well accepted or rather shaky.
 True True True
Premises Premises Conclusion
 Examples
Deductive Reasoning:

 Premise 1 : All men are mortal.

 Premise 2 : Socrates was a man.

 Conclusion: Socrates was mortal.

 Premises 1: All dolphins are mammals.

 Premises 2: All mammals have kidney.

 Conclusion: Therefore, all dolphins have

kidneys.
 Premises 1 : All birds have feathers.

 Premises 2 : All robins are birds.

 Conclusion: Therefore, robins have feathers.

 Inductive Argument
 An inductive argument: is one in which the
premises are supposed to support the conclusion.

 If the premises are true, it is unlikely that the

conclusion is false.

 The conclusion probably follows from the

premises.
 Inductive Reasoning
 The process of going from observations to
conclusions.

 This type of conclusion is sometimes called an

inference.

 From specific to general.

Specific General
 Examples
 Premises 1 : Socrates was Greek.

 Premise 2 : Most Greeks eat fish.

 Conclusion : Socrates ate fish.

Even if both premises are true, it is still possible

for the conclusion to be false (maybe Socrates was
allergic to fish).
 Premises 1: Everything made from this wire
Will of copper.

 Premises 2: Copper conducts electricity.

 Conclusion : This wire is made of copper.

 Recognizing Arguments
 Indicators: Certain words or phrases that typically
serve to signals the appearance of an argument’s
conclusion or its premises.

 Conclusion Indicator: Therefore and thus . What

follows it is the conclusion of the argument.

 Premises Indicator: Premises provide reason support

or ground to conclusion. Since and because.
 Validity:
 The characteristic of whole argument.

 Premises provides conclusive/inconvertible

ground to conclusion.

Truth and falsehood:

 Individual proposition
 Valid argument with true premises and true
conclusion:

 All mammals have lungs.

 All whales are mammals.

 Therefore, all whale have lungs.

 Valid argument with false premises and false
conclusion:

 All four leg creatures have wings.

 All spiders have exactly four legs.

 Therefore, all spiders have wings.

 Invalid arguments with true premises and
false conclusion:

 If Bill Gates owned all the gold in fort ,then Bill

Gates would be wealthy.

 Bill Gates does not own all gold in fort.

 Therefore, Bill Gates is not wealthy.