PSYCHOLOGY – SSC 210

Lahore School of Economics

Hirra Rana
Human Development
Nature & Nurture
Developmental psychology:
The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of
growth and change that occur throughout life.
 Nature and Nurture

How can we distinguish between the environmental

causes of behavior (the influence of parents, siblings,
family, friends, schooling, nutrition, and all the other
experiences to which a child is exposed) and hereditary
causes (those based on an individual’s genetic makeup
that influence growth and development throughout life)?

 Nature–nurture issue:
In this context, nature refers to hereditary
factors, and nurture refers to environmental
influences
nature–nurture issue :
The issue of the degree to which environment and
heredity influence behavior.
Developmental Research Techniques:

Cross-sectional research
A research method that compares people of different
ages at the same point in time
(Creasey,2005;Huijie,2006).

 Because of the demands of measuring behavioral

change across different ages, developmental
researchers use several unique methods.

 The most frequently used, cross-sectional

research.
Cross-sectional research (example)

For instance, we were interested in the development of

intellectual ability in adulthood. To carry out a cross-sectional
study, we might compare a sample of 25-, 45-, and 65-year-olds
who all take the same IQ test. We then can determine whether
average IQ test scores differ in each age group.
Longitudinal research
A research method that investigates behavior as participants
age.

For instance, consider how we might investigate intellectual

development during adulthood by using a longitudinal
research strategy. First, we might give an IQ test to a group of
25-year-olds. We’d then come back to the same people 20
years later and retest them at age 45. Finally, we’d return to
them once more when they were
65 years old and test them again.
Sequential research

A research method that combines cross-sectional

and longitudinal research by considering a number
of different age groups and examining them at
several points in time.

For example, investigators might examine a group of

3-, 5-, and 7-year-olds every six months for a period
of several years. This technique allows a
developmental psychologist to tease out the specific
effects of age changes from other possibly influential
factors.
The Basics of Genetics:

 Every individual’s characteristics are determined by the individual’s specific

genetic information.

(a) At the moment of conception, (b) humans receive 23 pairs of chromosomes,

half from the mother and half from the father. (c) These chromosomes are made
up of coils of DNA. (d) Each chromosome contains thousands of genes that
“program” the future development of the body.
Personality traits, and psychological disorders. Of course, few of these
characteristics are determined by a single gene. Instead, most traits
result from a combination of multiple genes that operate together with
environmental influences (Plomin&McGuffin,2003;Haberstick et
al.,2005; Ramus, 2006).

New Research : Human Genome Project

 Gene therapy, health-care providers inject genes to correct
particular diseases directly into a patient’s bloodstream.
 (Lymberis et al., 2004; Sato,Shimamura, & Takeuchi, 2007;
Naldini, 2009).
Teratogens: Environmental agents such as a drug,
chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth
defect.
 Parenting Styles and Social Development:
 Human Development (contd.)
Psychology of Life-span development
Life-span developmental psychology is the
field of psychology which involves the examination of
both constancy and change in human behavior
across the entire life span, that is, from conception to
death (Baltes,1987)
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial development
Development of individuals interactions and
understanding of each other and of their knowledge and
understanding of themselves as members of society
(Erikson,1963).

In tracing the course of social development, some

theorists have considered how the challenges of society
and culture change as an individual matures.
 In the first stage of psychosocial development:

1. Trust-versus-mistrust stage :
According to Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial
development, occurring from birth to age 1½ years,
during which time infants develop feelings of trust or
lack of trust.
 In the second stage,

2. Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage (ages 1½ to

3 years), toddlers develop independence and autonomy if
exploration and freedom are encouraged, or they experience
shame, self-doubt, and unhappiness if they are overly restricted
and protected.

According to Erikson, the key to the development of autonomy

during this period is that the child’s caregivers provide the
appropriate amount of control.

 If parents provide too much control, children cannot assert

themselves and develop their own sense of control over their
environment; if parents provide too little control, the children
become overly demanding and controlling.
 Next, children face the crises of :

3.initiative-versus-guilt stage (ages 3 to 6).

In this stage, children’s desire to act independently
conflicts with the guilt that comes from the unintended
and unexpected consequences of such behavior.

Children in this period come to understand that they are

persons in their own right.

If parents react positively to children’s attempts at

independence, they will help their children resolve the
initiative-versus guilt crisis positively.
 The fourth and last stage of childhood is the

4.Industry-versus-inferiority stage(ages 6 to
12).
According to Erikson, the last stage of childhood,
during which children age 6 to 12 years may develop
positive social interactions with others or may feel
inadequate and become less sociable.
 The fifth stage of Erikson’s theory

5.Identity-versus-role-confusion stage
According to Erikson, a time in adolescence of major
testing to determine one’s unique qualities.

Identity The distinguishing character

of the individual: who each of us is,
what our roles are, and what we are
capable of
6. Intimacy-versus-isolation stage
According to Erikson, a period during early adulthood that
focuses on developing close relationships.

7.Generativity-versus-stagnation stage
According to Erikson, a period in middle adulthood during which
we take stock of our contributions to family and society.

8.Ego-integrity-versus-despair stage
According to Erikson, a period from late adulthood until death
during which we review life’s accomplishments and failures.
Cognitive development:
The process by which a child’s understanding of
the world changes as a function of age and experience.

 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. No

theory of cognitive development has had more impact
than that of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget
(1970) suggested that children around the world
proceed through a series of four stages in a fixed order.