CHAPTER

2
Chemistry,
Biochemistry, and Cell
Physiology
Part 1

PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by

Stephen Gehnrich, Salisbury University

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 Thermodynamics
Chemical reactions proceed according to the rules of
thermodynamics
 The law of conservation of energy – energy can be
converted from one form to another but the total
amount of energy is constant (i.e., you cannot
“make” energy)
 Entropy – the universe is becoming more chaotic

Types of energy
 Potential – trapped energy
 Kinetic – energy of movement

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 Energy Categories
 Radiant energy –
transmitted from one object
to another; infrared radiation
 Mechanical energy –
movement of objects
 Electrical energy –
movement of charged
particles
 Thermal energy – movement
of molecules
 Chemical energy – within
chemical bonds
 Animals rely on all five
types of energy, which are
interconvertible.
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 Food Webs are Transfers of Energy

Plants convert radiant energy into chemical energy

by photosynthesis
Chemical energy is transferred from plants, to
herbivores, to carnivores

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 Energy is Stored in Electrochemical Gradients

 Diffusion of molecules is a source of energy

 Gradients are a form of energy storage
 Potential energy
 Gradients across membranes can be chemical,
electrical, or both (electrochemical)
 For example, membrane potential – electrical gradient
across a cell membrane

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 Electrochemical Gradients

: Membrane
potential

Figure 2.2
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 Thermal Energy
 Thermal energy   movement of molecules  
rate of chemical reactions

Most chemical reactions involve changes in thermal

energy
 Exothermic reactions – release heat
 Endothermic reactions – absorb heat

Increasing temperature
 Allows more molecules to reach activation energy
 Increases the rate of the reaction
 Increases the likelihood of endothermic reactions
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 Chemical Bonds

Most biologically available energy is stored in

chemical bonds
Two main types of bonds
 Covalent bonds (strong bonds) – atoms attached to
each other by sharing electrons
 Noncovalent bonds (weak bonds) – molecules
organized into three-dimensional structures

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 Noncovalent Bonds (Weak Bonds)
 Control macromolecule structure
 Arise between atoms with unequal distribution of electrons

Four types
 van der Waals forces
 Hydrogen bonds
 Ionic bonds
 Hydrophobic bonds

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 Hydrogen Bonds
Asymmetric sharing of electrons between two atoms
 For example, organization of water molecules
 Hydrogen (+) of one water molecule is attracted to
oxygen (–) of another

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 Ionic Bonds

 Anion (–) – atom with too many electrons

 Cation (+) – atom with too few electrons
 Ionic bond – joining of anions and cations
 Example: salts, acids, and bases

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 Hydrophobic Bonds

 Aversion to water
 No significant dipoles (i.e., nonpolar)
 Electrons are equally shared
 Cannot interact with polar molecules like water
 For example, oil droplets in water – not attracted to
each other, but repelled by water

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 Weak Bonds are Sensitive to Temperature

 Weak bonds are sensitive to temperature because of

low bond energies
 Affects three-dimensional structure
 Denature – molecules unfold due to high
temperature
 For example, protein, membranes, DNA

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 Properties of Water
 Liquid water is a network of interconnected water
molecules
 Water molecules are attracted to each other by
hydrogen bonds ( cohesion)
 Surface tension – the force due to attraction
between water molecules at the water–air interface

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 Boiling and Freezing

Temperature changes the organization of water

molecules
 High temperature – molecules possess enough
thermal energy to break the surface tension
(i.e., boil; high heat of vaporization; high heat
capacity )
 Low temperature – stabilize molecules as a result
of additional hydrogen bonds (i.e., freeze)

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 Density of Water is Affected by Temperature
Temperature influences the density of water
 Ice is less dense than liquid water
 Ice has more hydrogen bonds, but molecules are held
further apart
 Ice floats in liquid water

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 Many Solutes can Dissolve in Water

Solutes form hydrogen bonds with water molecules

Hydration shell – solute surrounded by water
molecules

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 Solutes Affect Properties of Water

Colligative properties of Solutes

 Reduce freezing point
 Increase
 Boiling point
 Vapor pressure
 Osmotic pressure
Depend on the number (concentration) of solutes, not
their size or charge

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 Solutes Move Through Water by Diffusion
(Diffusivity)
Direction of diffusion depends on the concentration
gradient
Rate of diffusion (dQs/dt) depends on many factors
 Size of concentration gradient (dC/dX)
 Size of molecule and hydration shell
 Diffusion coefficient (Ds)
 Diffusion area (A)
 Thickness of the boundary (inversely proportional)
 Fick equation: (dQs/dt) = Ds  A  (dC/dX)

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 Solutes Create Osmotic Pressure

Semipermeable membrane – allows some molecules

to cross while restricting others
Osmosis – the diffusion of water
Osmotic pressure – force associated with the
diffusion of water
Osmolarity – ability of solution to induce water to
diffuse across a membrane
 Determined by the concentration of solutes in the
solution (e.g. plasma)
 expressed in osmoles per liter (OsM/L)

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 Osmotic Pressure

Figure 2.8
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 Osmotic Pressure

Comparing osmolarity of two solutions:

 Solution with higher osmolarity is hyperosmotic
 Solution with lower osmolarity is hyposmotic
 If the osmolarities are the same, they are isosmotic
 Water diffuses from a hyposmotic solution to a
hyperosmotic solution

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 Osmosis Across Cell Membranes
 Tonicity – the effect of a solution on cell volume;
depends on the differences in osmolarity, types of
solutes and membrane permeability to solutes;
 Describes osmolarity relative to the plasma
 0.9% NaCl solution is isotonic to the body cells.
Hypotonic solution Isotonic solution Hypertonic solution
(lower solute levels) (equal solute levels) (higher solute levels)
H2O
H2O H2O H2O

Animal
cell

Lysed Normal Shriveled

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 Osmolarity vs. Tonicity

Figure 2.9
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 pH and the Ionization of Water
Dissociation of a water
molecule into ions
 H:O:H  H:O:– + H+
pH = –log [H+]
 Tenfold increase or
decrease of [H+]
Pure water is pH 7
[H+] = 10–7 M
–log 10–7 M = 7

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 Neutrality

Neutrality: [H+] = [OH–] or pH = pOH

 Affected by temperature
 The amount of dissociation increases as temperature
increases
 pH at neutrality (pN) varies inversely with temperature
 5°C: pN = 7.28
 25°C: pN = 7.00
 45°C: pN = 6.72

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 Acids and Bases Alter the pH of Water

Acids – release protons   pH

 HA  H+ + A– (reaction goes to the right)
Bases – accept protons (forms water)  pH
 HA  H+ + A– (reaction goes to the left)
Mass action ratio = ([H+]  [A–]) / [HA]
Equilibrium constant (Keq) – the mass action ratio at
equilibrium
 pK = –log Keq
 pK = pH – log ([A–] / [HA])
pK values low for strong acids and > 11 for strong bases; pH
at which half of the acid is dissociated; pK value decreases as
temperature increases
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 Strength of Acids and Bases

Table 2.1
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 Buffers Limit Changes in pH
A buffer is a substance that minimizes changes in
pH. Buffers ( bicarbonate, phosphate, histidine):
 accept H+ when it is in excess (low pH)
 donate H+ when it is depleted ( high pH)
 Maintain relatively constant pH in the cells and
blood (pH 7.35-7.45)
 A substance that has the ability to bind or release
H+ in solution
 Ex. Carbonic acid : H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

H2 O + CO2
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 Buffers Limit Changes in pH
A buffer is effective only over a narrow
range of pH values

Figure 2.11
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