Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator Handbook, 2 Edition

Pumping Apparatus
Driver/Operator — Lesson 7
Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

Handbook, 2nd Edition
Chapter 7 — Fire Hose Nozzles

and Flow Rates
Learning Objectives
1. Define fire stream.
2. List factors that influence a fire stream.
3. Explain why driver/operators must be

knowledgeable about fire streams and
nozzles.
4. Select facts about solid stream nozzles.

(Continued)

7–1
Learning Objectives
5. State the equation for determining the flow

from a solid stream nozzle.
6. Calculate nozzle flow from a solid stream

nozzle.
7. Match fog stream terms to their definitions.
8. Select facts about fog stream nozzles.

(Continued)

7–2
Learning Objectives
9. List the factors influencing the reach of a

fog stream.
10. List the types of fog stream nozzles.
11. Identify characteristics of various types of

fog stream nozzles.
12. Answer questions about handline nozzles.

(Continued)

7–3
Learning Objectives
13. Select facts about master stream nozzles

and the four basic categories.
14. Describe when to use master stream

nozzles.
15. Identify characteristics of special purpose

nozzles.
16. Select facts about nozzle reaction. (Continued)

7–4
Learning Objectives
17. Identify working limits for velocity of fire

streams for various nozzles and handlines.
18. State the equation for determining nozzle

reaction for solid stream nozzles.
19. State the equation for determining nozzle

reaction for fog stream nozzles.
20. Calculate nozzle reaction.

7–5
Fire Stream
• A fire stream is a stream of water or other

extinguishing agent after it leaves a nozzle
until it reaches the desired point.
(Continued)

7–6
Fire Stream
• Fire streams are influenced by:

– Velocity
– Gravity
– Wind
– Friction with the air
– Operating pressures
– Nozzle design
– Nozzle adjustment
– Condition of the nozzle orifice
(Continued)

7–7
Fire Stream
• The type of fire stream applied to a fire

depends on the nozzle being used.
• Each nozzle has its own optimum flow rate

and discharge pressure, which affects the
calculations performed by the driver/operator.
• Driver/Operators must understand the

capabilities of each nozzle to provide the
appropriate pressure and volume of water.
7–8
Solid Stream Nozzles
• Produce a stream
as compact as
possible with little
shower or spray
• Reach areas that

other streams might
not
(Continued)

7–9
• May be used on handlines, portable or

apparatus-mounted master streams, or
elevated master streams
• Are designed so that the shape of the water
in the nozzle is gradually reduced until it
reaches a point a short distance from the
outlet; at this point, the nozzle becomes a
cylindrical bore whose length is from one to
one and one-half times its diameter
(Continued)

7–10
• Have a smooth-finish waterway that

contributes to both the shape and reach of
the stream
Note: Alteration or damage to the nozzle can
significantly alter stream shape and
performance.
(Continued)

7–11
• Nozzle pressure and the size of the discharge

opening determine the flow and stream
reach.
• Should be operated at 50 psi (350 kPa) on

handlines
• Should be operated at 80 psi (560 kPa) on

master stream devices

7–12
Determining Flow from a
Solid Stream Nozzle (Customary)
• GPM = 29.7 x d2 x √NP

GPM = Discharge in gallons per minute
29.7 = A constant
d = Diameter of the orifice in inches
NP = Nozzle pressure in psi

7–13
Determining Flow from a
Solid Stream Nozzle (Metric)
• L/min = 0.067 x d2 x √NP

L/min = Discharge in liters per minute
0.067 = A constant
d = Diameter of the orifice in millimeters
NP = Nozzle pressure in kPa

7–14
Fog Stream Terms
• Periphery — The line bounding a rounded

surface; the outward boundary of an object
distinguished from its internal regions
• Deflection — A turning or state of being
turned; a turning from a straight line or given
course; a bending; a deviation
• Impinge — To stroke or dash about or
against; clashing with a sharp collision; to
come together with force

7–15
Fog Streams
• May be produced by deflection at the

periphery or by impinging jets of water or by a
combination
• When water is discharged at angles to the
direct line of discharge, the reaction forces
largely balance each other, reducing nozzle
reaction.
• This balancing is why fog patterns are easier
to handle than solid or stream patterns.

7–16
Periphery-Deflected Streams
• Produced by deflecting water from the periphery of

an inside circular stem in a periphery-deflected fog
nozzle; this water is again deflected by exterior
barrel
• Shape is determined by the relative positions of the
deflecting stem and the exterior barrel

7–17
Impinging Stream Nozzle
• Drives several jets of

water together at a set
angle to break the water
into finely divided
particles
• Usually produces a
wide-angle fog pattern,
but a narrow pattern is
possible

7–18
Reach of a Fog Stream
• Is directly dependent
on
– Width of the stream
– Size of water droplets
– Wind
– Amount of water
flowing

7–19
Constant Flow Nozzles
• Are designed to flow a specific amount of

water at a specific nozzle discharge pressure
on all stream patterns
• Utilize a periphery-deflected stream
• Discharge the same volume of water

regardless of the pattern setting
(Continued)

7–20
• Are intended to be operated at a nozzle

pressure of 100 psi (700 kPa)
• Some may operate at 50 to 75 psi (350 kPa

to 535 kPa) for special applications such as
high-rise fire fighting
(Continued)

7–21

7–22
Manually Adjustable Nozzles
• Have a number of constant flow settings,

enabling a flow rate that best suits the
existing conditions
• Supply the selected flow at the rated nozzle
discharge pressure; actual flow will differ if
proper pressure cannot be supplied
• Are designed to supply the gallonage marked
on each setting at a nozzle pressure of 100
psi (700 kPa) (Continued)

7–23
Manually Adjustable Nozzles
• CAUTION! Take care when adjusting flow

settings. Nozzles that are set on a low flow
may not provide the volume of water needed
to sufficiently cool a burning fuel. The
minimum flow setting for interior structural
firefighting is 95 to 100 gpm (380 L/min to
400 L/min).

7–24
Automatic Nozzles
• Are the most common variable flow

nozzles in use
• Are also referred to as constant pressure
nozzles or multipurpose nozzles
• Are variable flow nozzles with pattern-
change capabilities and the ability to
maintain the same nozzle pressure
(Continued)

7–25
Automatic Nozzles
(Continued)

7–26
Automatic Nozzles
• Maintain approximately same nozzle

pressure and pattern if gallonage supplied to
nozzle changes
• Can have a stream that appears adequate,
but may not be supplying sufficient water for
extinguishment or protection; the goal of the
driver/operator is to provide an acceptable
flow of water at the discharge pressure for
which the nozzle is designed
(Continued)

7–27
Automatic Nozzles
• Most are designed for a 100 psi (700 kPa)

discharge pressure
• Some may be designed for lower pressures

such as 50 to 75 psi (350 kPa to 535 kPa)
• Serve as a pressure regulator for the pumper

as lines are added or shut down, ensuring that
available water may be used continuously
(Continued)

7–28
Automatic Nozzles
CAUTION! Make sure that adequate pump

discharge pressures are used to supply
hoselines equipped with automatic nozzles.
Nozzles receiving inadequate pressures may
not provide the volume of water needed to
sufficiently cool a burning fuel even though
the stream appears adequate.
(Continued)

7–29
Automatic Nozzles
• Maintain a constant nozzle pressure of

approximately 100 psi (700 kPa), no matter
how much the pump discharge pressure is
above this figure
• Enlarge opening size automatically as pump

discharge pressure is increased

7–30
High-Pressure Fog Nozzles
• Operate at pressures up to 800 psi (5 600

kPa)
• Develop a fog stream with considerable

forward velocity but deliver a relatively low
volume of water
• Deliver water in a very fast-moving, fine spray
(Continued)

7–31
• May use an impinging stream
• Are best suited for fighting wildland fires
• Are not recommended for structural fire

fighting because they generally only flow
around 8 to 15 gpm (32 L/min to 60 L/min)
(Continued)

7–32

7–33
Handline Nozzles
• Are designed to be placed on attack lines that

can be easily maneuvered by firefighters
• May be of the solid, fog, impinging, or broken
stream type
• Range in size from small booster line nozzles
for ¾-inch (19 mm) booster line to large fog
or solid stream nozzles for 3-inch (77 mm)
hoseline
(Continued)

7–34
Handline Nozzles
• Can flow a maximum of 350 gpm (1 400

L/min) safely; flows greater than 350 gpm
(1 400 L/min) produce nozzle reactions that
make the hoselines difficult and dangerous
for firefighters to handle

7–35
Master Stream Nozzles
• Include any fire stream that is too large to be

controlled without mechanical aid
• Are powerful and generate a considerable

amount of nozzle reaction force; it is
extremely important that firefighters take
proper safety precautions
(Continued)

7–36
• May be either solid or fog streams; both

utilize a nozzle of sufficient size to deliver the
higher flows
• Are usually operated at 80 psi (560 kPa)

(smoothbore) and 100 psi (700 kPa) (fog)
• Flow 350 gpm (1 400 L/min) or greater
(Continued)

7–37
• Are used when

– Handlines would be ineffective
– Conditions are unsafe
– Manpower is limited
(Continued)

7–38
• Are used from fixed positions, so most have

some means for moving the stream in either
a vertical or horizontal plane, or both
– To permit such adjustments, the water must pass
through one or more sharp bends
– On some larger master stream devices, there are
two bends to form a loop in the shape of a ram’s
horns.
– Some other master stream devices have a single
bent-pipe waterway. (Continued)

7–39
• Friction loss varies from device to device –

each department must determine the friction
loss in the devices it has available, either by
flow test or manufacturer’s documentation
Note: Refer to Appendix B for the procedure
for determining friction loss in master stream
devices.

7–40
Monitors
• Are often incorrectly referred to as deluge

sets
• Differ in one important way: with a monitor,
the stream direction and angle can be
changed while water is being discharged
(Continued)

7–41
Monitors
• Fixed (sometimes called a deck gun or turret)

— Is permanently mounted on the apparatus
• Combination — Is mounted on the apparatus,

but can be used there as a turret or removed
and used as a portable monitor
• Portable — Can be carried to the location

where it is needed
(Continued)

7–42
Monitors

7–43
Turret Pipe
• Mounted on a fire apparatus deck and is

connected directly to the pump by permanent
piping
• Also sometimes called a deck gun or deck

pipe
• Supplied by permanent piping from the pump

(Continued)

7–44
Turret Pipe
Photo courtesy Ed Hawthorne

7–45
Deluge Set
• Consists of a short length of large diameter

hose with a large nozzle or large playpipe
supported at the discharge end by a tripod
• Has a siamese connection at the supply end
• Cannot have direction and angle of the

stream changed while discharging water
(Continued)

7–46
Deluge Set

7–47
Elevated Master Streams
• Are large-capacity nozzles that are designed

to be placed on the end of an aerial device
• May be permanently attached to elevating

platforms and preplumbed aerial ladders or
may be detachable

7–48
Ladder Pipes
• Are a master stream

device used in
conjunction with
aerial ladders
• Are attached to the

rungs of an aerial
ladder and are
supplied by fire hose (Continued)

7–49
Ladder Pipes
• Can be operated manually by a firefighter at

the tip of the ladder or by using a rope from
the ground, although some departments
choose to control them only from the ground
to avoid putting a firefighter in jeopardy on the
ladder
(Continued)

7–50
Ladder Pipes
• Movement is limited to vertical up-and-down

motions.
• Horizontal movement would place dangerous

stress on the aerial ladder. If the nozzle
direction needs to be changed horizontally,
the entire ladder must be redirected.

7–51
• Have preplumbed waterways instead of hose,

which:
– Generally have the ladder pipe attached to the
end of the waterway, which is on the
underside of the ladder
– May be operated from the top either manually
or by a power control switch located there
(Continued)

7–52
• Preplumbed waterways
(cont.):
– Can be operated
from turntable or
pump panel area by
remote power
controls
– May be operated by
electric, hydraulic, or
pneumatic system (Continued)

7–53
• May be used with elevating platforms

– Are similar to those with preplumbed aerial
ladders, but are located on the aerial platform
and can be more easily maneuvered by
firefighters at the tip of the aerial device
– Some are equipped with two master streams
on one platform

7–54
Special Purpose Nozzles
• Most are broken stream nozzles

– Differ from fog stream nozzles in that fog
streams use deflection or impinging streams to
create a fog pattern, while broken streams are
created when water is forced through a series
of small holes on the discharge end of the
nozzle
– Broken streams produce larger droplets of
water than do fog streams, giving better reach
and penetrating power
7–55
Cellar Nozzles
• Are also called distributors

• Are often used on basement fires
• Can be lowered through holes cut in the floor
or through some other suitable opening
(Continued)

7–56
Cellar Nozzles
• May or may not be equipped with shutoffs; if

not, an in-line shutoff valve should be placed
at a convenient location back from the nozzle
• May also be used to attack attic fires – the

nozzle is pushed through a hole in the ceiling
to attack the fire above
(Continued)

7–57
Cellar Nozzles

7–58
Water Curtain Nozzles
• Are decreasing in use
• Produce a fan-shaped stream intended to

protect combustible materials from the heat of
an adjacent fire
• May be used to protect firefighters from heat
(Continued)

7–59
• Must cover a wide area and be reasonably

heavy to be effective
• Are only effective in absorbing convected

heat from a fire; radiant heat penetrates the
water curtain
(Continued)

7–60
Note: A water curtain between the fire and

combustible material is not as effective as the
same amount of water flowing over the
surface of the combustible material. It is
better to direct fire streams onto exposed
surfaces. This may be accomplished by
allowing the water to rain down on the
exposure being protected.

7–61
Piercing Nozzles
• Are also called

penetrating nozzles
• Are commonly used

in aircraft fire
fighting and to apply
water to areas that
are inaccessible to
water streams (Continued)

7–62
Piercing Nozzles
• May be used to deliver aqueous film forming

foam (AFFF) to a confined area
• Are generally a 3- to 6-foot (1 m to 2 m)

hollow steel rod 1½-inches (38 mm) in
diameter
(Continued)

7–63
Piercing Nozzles
• Have a discharge end that is a hardened

steel point suitable for driving through
concrete block or other types of wall or
partition assemblies; built into that point is an
impinging jet nozzle capable of delivering
about 100 gpm (400 L/min) of water at
standard operating pressure
(Continued)

7–64
Piercing Nozzles
• Have a driving end opposite the pointed end;

this end is driven with a sledgehammer to
force the point through an obstruction

7–65
Chimney Nozzles
• Have been developed to attack chimney flue

fires
• Are designed to be placed on the end of a

booster hose
• Are a solid piece of brass or steel with

numerous, very small impinging holes
(Continued)

7–66
Chimney Nozzles
• Generally produce only

1.5 to 3 gpm (6 L/min to
12 L/min) at a nozzle
pressure of 100 psi (700
kPa)
• Produce water in a very

fine, misty fog cone

7–67
Chimney Nozzle Process
• Hose and nozzle are lowered down the entire

length of chimney and then quickly pulled out.
• The mist from the nozzle immediately turns to
steam and chokes the flue fire as well as
loosens the soot on the inside of the chimney.
• The process may damage booster hose, so it
is better to use an old section of hose on the
end of the regular section of hose.
(Continued)

7–68
Chimney Nozzle Process

7–69
Nozzle Reaction
• Is the force pushing back on firefighters as

water is discharged from a nozzle at a given
pressure
• Illustrates Newton’s Third Law of Motion – For

every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction
(Continued)

7–70
Nozzle Reaction
• Forces firefighters to limit the amount of

nozzle pressure that can be supplied to an
attack line
• Can cause serious injury to firefighters due to

nozzles violently whipping around from
excess nozzle reaction

7–71
Practical Working Limits for
Velocity of Fire Streams
• Are within 60 to 120 feet per second (18.3 m

to 36.6 m per second)
• Are produced by nozzle pressures that range

from 25 to 100 psi (175 kPa to 700 kPa)
(Continued)

7–72
• Fog nozzles
– Are designed to operate at a nozzle
pressure of 100 psi
– Become difficult to handle above this
pressure
(Continued)

7–73
• Solid stream handlines

– Are usually designed to operate at 50 psi
(350 kPa)
– May be raised to 65 psi (455 kPa) without
becoming unmanageable; above this point,
become increasingly difficult to handle
(Continued)

7–74
• Portable master stream devices — Should

not be operated above recommended nozzle
pressure unless approved by manufacturer
• Fixed master stream devices with solid

stream nozzles — May be operated at higher
pressures (80 to 100 psi [560 kPa to 700
kPa]) as required
(Continued)

7–75
• Solid stream nozzles used on aerial

devices — Should be limited to a nozzle
pressure of 80 psi (560 kPa)
• Fog nozzles used on aerial devices — Should

be limited to a nozzle pressure of 100 psi
(700 kPa)

7–76
Determining Nozzle Reaction
• Is not done at the fire scene
• Can prove useful in other situations, such as

determining hose and nozzle configurations
for preconnected attack lines that will be
placed on the apparatus

7–77
on Solid Stream Nozzles
• Customary
NR = 1.57 x d2 x NP
NR = Nozzle reaction in pounds
1.57 = A constant
d = Nozzle diameter in inches
(Continued)

7–78
on Solid Stream Nozzles
• Metric
NR = 0.0015 x d2 x NP
NR = Nozzle reaction in newtons
0.0015 = A constant
d = Nozzle diameter in mm

7–79
on Fog Stream Nozzles
• Customary
NR = 0.0505 x Q x √NP
NR = Nozzle reaction in pounds
0.0505 = A constant
Q = Total flow through the nozzle in gpm
(Continued)

7–80
on Fog Stream Nozzles
• Metric
NR = 0.0156 x Q x √NP
NR = Nozzle reaction in newtons
0.0156 = A constant
Q = Total flow through the nozzle in L/min

7–81
Summary
• Pumping apparatus driver/operators must be

familiar with the different types of nozzles
carried on their apparatus.
• Each type of nozzle has its own optimum flow

rate and discharge pressure.
(Continued)

7–82
Summary
• The particular type of nozzle being used

affects the hydraulic calculations that
driver/operators must perform.
• Even though driver/operators are usually not

responsible for selecting an appropriate
nozzle to perform a particular evolution, they
must understand the capabilities of each
nozzle in order to properly support it.

7–83
Discussion Questions
1. What is a fire stream?
2. What factors influence a fire stream?
3. What is the equation for determining the

flow from a solid stream nozzle?
4. Name the types of fog stream nozzles.

(Continued)

7–84
Discussion Questions
5. When are master stream nozzles used?
6. What are the types of master stream

nozzles?
7. What is nozzle reaction?
8. What is the equation for determining nozzle

reaction?

7–85

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Pumping Apparatus

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

Chapter 7 — Fire Hose Nozzles

1. Define fire stream.

2. List factors that influence a fire stream.

3. Explain why driver/operators must be

4. Select facts about solid stream nozzles.

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

5. State the equation for determining the flow

6. Calculate nozzle flow from a solid stream

7. Match fog stream terms to their definitions.

8. Select facts about fog stream nozzles.

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

9. List the factors influencing the reach of a

10. List the types of fog stream nozzles.

11. Identify characteristics of various types of

12. Answer questions about handline nozzles.

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

13. Select facts about master stream nozzles

14. Describe when to use master stream

15. Identify characteristics of special purpose

16. Select facts about nozzle reaction. (Continued)

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

17. Identify working limits for velocity of fire

18. State the equation for determining nozzle

19. State the equation for determining nozzle

20. Calculate nozzle reaction.

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• A fire stream is a stream of water or other

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• Fire streams are influenced by:

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• The type of fire stream applied to a fire

• Each nozzle has its own optimum flow rate

• Driver/Operators must understand the

• Reach areas that

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• May be used on handlines, portable or

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• Have a smooth-finish waterway that

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• Nozzle pressure and the size of the discharge

• Should be operated at 50 psi (350 kPa) on

• Should be operated at 80 psi (560 kPa) on

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• GPM = 29.7 x d2 x √NP

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• L/min = 0.067 x d2 x √NP

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• Periphery — The line bounding a rounded

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• May be produced by deflection at the

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• Produced by deflecting water from the periphery of

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• Drives several jets of

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• Are designed to flow a specific amount of

• Utilize a periphery-deflected stream

• Discharge the same volume of water

Pumping Apparatus Driver/Operator

• Are intended to be operated at a nozzle