Welding Inspector

Non Destructive Testing

Section 15

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 Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of
NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.

Four basic NDT methods

• Radiographic inspection (RT)
• Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
• Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
• Dye penetrant inspection (PT)

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 Non-Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
• Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye-Penetrant)
• Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)

Volumetric & Planar Inspection

• Ultrasonics (UT)
• Radiography (RT)
Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect
to:
• Technical Capability and Cost
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration
of these advantages and disadvantages

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 Radiographic Testing (RT)

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 Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography
• X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling
• Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph
• Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
as lighter areas on a radiograph
• Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites

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 Radiographic Testing

X – Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms

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 Radiographic Testing
Source

Radiation beam Image quality indicator

Test specimen

Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

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 Radiographic Testing
Density - relates to the degree of darkness

Densitometer

Contrast - relates to the degree of difference

Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph

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 Radiographic Sensitivity

7FE12

Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

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 Radiographic Sensitivity

Step/Hole Type IQI

Wire Type IQI

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 Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
• film inside, source outside

Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

• film outside, source inside (internal exposure)

Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

• film outside, source outside (external exposure)

Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

• film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)

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 Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)

Film

Film

IQI’s should be placed source side

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 Single Wall Single Image Panoramic

Film

• IQI’s are placed on the film side

• Source inside film outside (single exposure)

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 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
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 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

• Identification

• Unique identification
EN W10

• IQI placing

• Pitch marks indicating A B

readable film length
ID MR11

Radiograph
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 Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

Radiograph
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 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• A minimum of two exposures
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
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 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

• Identification 4 3
• Unique identification EN W10

• IQI placing

• Pitch marks indicating 1 2

readable film length
ID MR12

Shot A Radiograph

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 Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

4 3

1 2

Elliptical Radiograph
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 Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
•the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)

Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
•the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)

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 Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES
Isotope Typical Thickness Range
• Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used)

• Cobalt 60 > 50 mm

• Ytterbium < 10 mm
• Thulium < 10 mm
• Cesium < 10 mm

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 Radiographic Testing
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Expensive consumables
• Permanent record
• Bulky equipment
• Little surface preparation
• Harmful radiation
• Defect identification
• Defect require significant
• No material type limitation
depth in relation to the
• Not so reliant upon operator radiation beam (not good
skill for planar defects)

• Thin materials • Slow results

• Very little indication of
depths
• Access to both sides
required
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 Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
ADVANTAGES
good for non-planar defects
good for thin sections
gives permanent record
easier for 2nd party interpretation
can use on all material types
high productivity
direct image of imperfections

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 Radiographic Testing
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard
not good for thick sections
high capital and relatively high running costs
not good for planar defects
X-ray sets not very portable
requires access to both sides of weld
frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life)

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 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Main Features:
• Surface and sub-surface detection
• This detection method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
• A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
• The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and
back
• An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
• For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo Digital
signals UT Set,
A scan
Display

Compression probe checking the material Thickness

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 Ultrasonic Testing

defect Back wall

initial pulse echo echo

Material Thk
defect

0 10 20 30 40 50

Compression Probe CRT Display

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 Ultrasonic Testing
UT Set
A Scan
Display

Angle Probe

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 Ultrasonic Testing

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

½ Skip CRT Display

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

Full Skip CRT Display

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Disadvantages
Advantages
 Trained and skilled operator
 Rapid results
required
 Both surface and
 Requires high operator skill
sub-surface detection
 Good surface finish required
 Safe
 Defect identification
 Capable of measuring the
 Couplant may contaminate
depth of defects
 No permanent record
 May be battery powered
 Calibration Required
 Portable
 Ferritic Material (Mostly)

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
ADVANTAGES
•good for planar defects
•good for thick sections
•instant results
•can use on complex joints
•can automate
•very portable
•no safety problems (‘parallel’ working is possible)
•low capital & running costs

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 Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
DISADVANTAGES
no permanent record (with standard equipment)
not suitable for very thin joints <8mm
reliant on operator interpretation
not good for sizing Porosity
good/smooth surface profile needed
not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)
Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment)
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 Magnetic Particle testing (MT)

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features:
Surface and slight sub-surface detection
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being
tested
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create
a leakage field, which attracts the particles
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in
the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
green/yellow indication
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 Magnetic Particle Testing

Collection of ink
particles due to
leakage field

Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC

Prods DC or AC
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 Magnetic Particle Testing

A crack like
indication

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 Magnetic Particle Testing

Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used

for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A light source
and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
• Clean area to be tested
• Apply contrast paint
• Apply magnetisism to the component
• Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during
magnatising
• Iterpret the test area
• Post clean and de-magnatise if required

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple to use • Surface or slight sub-surface

detection only
• Inexpensive
• Magnetic materials only
• Rapid results
• No indication of defects
• Little surface preparation depths
required
• Only suitable for linear
• Possible to inspect through defects
thin coatings
• Detection is required in two
directions

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 Magnetic Particle Testing
Comparison with Penetrant Testing
ADVANTAGES
• much quicker than PT
• instant results
• can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow
technique)
• less surface preparation needed
DISADVANTAGES
• only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
• electrical power for most techniques
• may need to de-magnetise (machine components)

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 Penetrant Testing (PT)

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 Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
This test method uses the forces of capillary action
Applicable on any material type, as long they are non
porous.
Penetrants are available in many different types:
• Water washable contrast
• Solvent removable contrast
• Water washable fluorescent
• Solvent removable fluorescent
• Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
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 Penetrant Testing
Step 1. Pre-Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent

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 Penetrant Testing
Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell
time).
The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by
capillary action.

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 Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Clean off penetrant
the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell
time).
Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any
defects present

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 Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place.

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 Penetrant Testing
Step 4. Inspection / development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required.

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 Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Bleed out viewed
under a UV-A light
source

Bleed out viewed

under white light
Colour contrast Penetrant
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 Penetrant Testing

Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to use Surface breaking defect
only
Inexpensive
little indication of depths
Quick results
Penetrant may
Can be used on any non- contaminate component
porous material Surface preparation critical
Portability Post cleaning required
Low operator skill required Potentially hazardous
chemicals
Can not test unlimited
times
Temperature dependant
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 Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
ADVANTAGES
•easy to interpret results
•no power requirements
•relatively little training required
•can use on all materials
DISADVANTAGES
•good surface finish needed
•relatively slow
•chemicals - health & safety issue

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