13 Electro III

Electro
Technology III
STCW Table A-III/1 and III/2
Specification of minimum standard of competence for

officers in charge of an engineering watch in a manned
engine-room or designated duty engineers in a periodically
unmanned engine-room
Function 1:
Electrical, Electronic
and Control Engineering
Competence 1:
Operate electrical, electronic and control
systems
Maintenance and repair of electrical and
electronic equipment
Learning Objectives :
At the end of the module, the students will be able to learn:
• Basic configuration and operation principles of the following
electrical, electronic and control equipment
• Maintenance and repair of electrical system equipment,
switchboards, electric motors, generator and DC electrical systems
and equipment
• Detection of electric malfunction, location of faults and measures to
prevent damage
• Design features and system configurations of operational control
equipment for electrical motors
Electron Theory
Basic Concepts of Matter
Matter
- is anything that has mass and takes up space.
The basic unit of matter is the atom.
Energy
- is the ability to do work.
There are two forms of energy :
1. Heat energy
2. Light energy
Atom
- is made up of :
The Nucleus – which
is made up of protons and
neutrons.
Electrons – which
revolve around the
nucleus in paths called
orbits or shells.
Element
- a substance that is made of atoms that are all the same.
Compound
- a substance that is made up of two or more different elements
Molecule
- a substance that is the smallest particle of a compound and still
contains all the characteristics of that compound
Electric Charges
Electrons
- is a subatomic particle, symbol e- or β−, with a
negative elementary electric charge.
Protons
- is a subatomic particle, symbol p or p+, with a positive electric
charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than that of
a neutron. Protons and neutrons, each with mass approximately
one atomic mass unit, are collectively referred to as "nucleons".
Neutrons
- s a subatomic particle, symbol n or n0, with no net electric
charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Protons and
neutrons, each with mass approximately one atomic mass unit,
constitute the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic Weight
- the number of protons plus the number of neutrons
Atomic Number
- the number of protons
Valence Electrons
- electrons in the outmost shell
Free Electrons
- electrons that leave the outmost shell
Ionization
- the process by which atoms gain or lose electrons. When an
atom loses electrons it becomes a positively charged ion. When an
atom gains electrons it becomes a negatively charge ion.
Some materials hold their electrons very tightly. Electrons do not move
through them very well. These things are called Insulators. Plastic,
cloth, glass and dry air are good insulators.
Static Energy
- is an imbalance of
electric charges within or on the
surface of a material.
The charge remains until it is
able to move away by means of
an electric current or electrical
discharge.
Cause of Static Energy
Static electricity is usually caused when certain materials are rubbed
against each other, like wool on plastic or the soles of your shoes on
the carpet. The process causes electrons to be pulled from the surface
of one material and relocated on the surface of the other material.
Charges on Surface
Charges on Surface Note that the charged atoms are on the surface of
the material. Static electricity is different than regular electricity that
flows through metal wires. Most of the time the materials involved in
static electricity are nonconductors of electricity.
How a battery works ?
A basic law of the universe is that like
charges repel and unlike attract. Two
negatives will repel each other. A negative
and a positive will attract each other. An
electron has a negative charge. An
electron has a negative charge. The
positive terminal of a battery will attract
negative electrons along a wire. Electric
current will therefore flow from the
negative terminal of a battery, through
the lamp, to the positive terminal.
Electron Flow
- Electron flow is what we think of as electrical current. We are
familiar with two types of electron flow, Direct Current, or DC, and
Alternating Current, or AC.
Direct Current (DC)
- is the kind of electrical flow we get from batteries and solar
cells, when electrons travel in only one direction.
Alternating Current (AC)
- is the kind of electrical flow we get from a typical electrical
outlet in a home. AC is when the electrons flow in two directions, from
the positive to the negative terminal and from the negative to the
positive terminal, 'alternating' between the two directions.
Why do the electrons move ?
The electrons are repelled by the negative charge at the negative
terminal of the battery and attracted by the positive charge at the
positive terminal. Therefore the electrons drift away from the negative
terminal and towards the positive terminal. When the electrons reach
the positive terminal a chemical reaction transfers them across the
battery and back to the negative terminal.
Conventional Flow
As stated in the previous slide the movement of electrons and
therefore the direction of current flow is from the negative terminal of
the battery to the positive terminal. However before the true nature of
electricity was known scientists assumed that current was the result of
the movement of positively charged particles and therefore that
current flowed from the positive to the negative terminal.
Inert Elements
An inert element is an element that has no capacity to bond to other
atoms. Most of the Noble elements Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton,
Xenon & Radon are unreactive. But, Xenon is. Atoms are clumps of sub
atomic particles like protons, electrons & neutrons. There's more to it
than that. But, for Chemistry's sake. These are the basic building blocks
of atoms. Electrons circle or orbit the positively charged nucleus. Like
the planets that circle or orbit our Sun. A Noble element is unreactive
because all of it's 'orbits' have been filled up with electrons.
Ions
- are formed when the number of protons in an atom does not
equal the number of electrons.
Cation
- if more protons are present, the ion is positive and is known as
a cation.
Anion
- if more electrons are present, the ion is negative and referred
to as an anion.
Basic Electronic Circuit Elements

Semiconductor
- is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound,
that can conduct electricity under some conditions but not others,
making it a good medium for the control of electrical current.
Its conductance varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a
control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR),
visible light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.
Intrinsic Semiconductor
- is an undoped semiconductor. This means that holes in the
valence band are vacancies created by electrons that have been
thermally excited to the conduction band, as opposed to doped
semiconductors where holes or electrons are supplied by a “foreign”
atom acting as an impurity.
Extrinsic Semiconductor
- is a semiconductor doped by a specific impurity which is able to
deeply modify its electrical properties, making it suitable for electronic
applications (diodes, transistors, etc.) or optoelectronic applications
(light emitters and detectors).
Photoelectric Effect
- is the observation that many metals emit electrons when light
shines upon them. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called
photoelectron. The phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic
physics, as well as in fields of chemistry, such as quantum chemistry or
electrochemistry.
Thermoelectric Effect
- is the direct conversion of temperature differences to
electric voltage and vice versa. A thermoelectric device creates voltage
when there is a different temperature on each side. Conversely, when a
voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature difference. At the
atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in
the material to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side.
Hall Effect
- is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the
conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was
discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.
N-Type Semiconductor
- carries current mainly in the form of negatively-charged
electrons, in a manner similar to the conduction of current in a wire.
P-Type Semiconductor
- carries current predominantly as electron deficiencies
called holes. A hole has a positive electric charge, equal and opposite
to the charge on an electron. In a semiconductor material, the flow of
holes occurs in a direction opposite to the flow of electrons.
P-N Junction
- are formed by joining n-type and p-type semiconductor
materials. Since the n-type region has a high electron concentration
and the p-type a high hole concentration, electrons diffuse from the n-
type side to the p-type side. Similarly, holes flow by diffusion from
the p-type side to the n-type side. If the electrons and holes were not
charged, this diffusion process would continue until the concentration
of electrons and holes on the two sides were the same, as happens if
two gasses come into contact with each other.
Properties
The p–n junction possesses some interesting properties that have
useful applications in modern electronics.
Equilibrium (zero bias)
In a p-n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium
condition is reached in which a potential difference is formed across
the junction. This potential difference is called built-in potential Vbi .
Forward Bias
- In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive
terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative terminal. With
a battery connected this way, the holes in the p-type region and
the electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction. This
reduces the width of the depletion zone.
Reverse Bias
- Connecting the p-type region to the negative terminal of the
battery and the n-type region to the positive terminal corresponds to
reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is
comparatively higher than the anode. Therefore, no current will flow
until the diode breaks down. The connections are illustrated in the
diagram to the right.
Rectification : Semiconductor
Diodes
Diodes
- is a non-ohmic two-terminal device. Its resistance
is not constant, but is a function of the diode's current. They allow easy
passage of current in one direction while blocking current in the
reverse direction. When diodes are used to convert AC to DC, the
process is called rectification.
A diode is a specialized electronic
component with two electrodes
called the anode and the cathode.
Most diodes are made
with semiconductor materials such
as silicon, germanium, or selenium.
Rectification,
How it works
Transistor
is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals
and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at
least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage
or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the
current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a
transistor can amplify a signal.
The transistor is the fundamental building
block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.
Following its development in 1947 by
American physicists John Bardeen, Walter
Brattain, and William Shockley, the
transistor revolutionized the field of
electronics, and paved the way for smaller
and cheaper radios, calculators,
and computers, among other things.
Thyristor
is a solid-state semiconductor
device with four layers of
alternating N and P-type material.
It acts exclusively as
a bistable switch, conducting
when the gate receives a current
trigger, and continuing to conduct
while the voltage across the device
is not reversed (forward-biased).
Types of Thyristors
• Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR);
• Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO) and Integrated Gate
Commutated Thyristor (IGCT);
• MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
• Static Induction Thyristor (SITh)
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
is a four-layer solid –state current-controlling device. The name “silicon
controlled rectifier” is General Electric’s trade name for a type of
thyristor. SCRs are unidirectional devices as opposed to TRIACs, which
are bidirectional. SCRs can be triggered normally only by currents going
into the gate as opposed to TRIACs, which can be triggered normally by
either a positive or a negative current applied to its gate electrode.
Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO)
Is a special type of thyristor, which is a high-power semiconductor
device. GTOs, as opposed to normal thyristors, are fully controllable
switches which can be turned on and off by their third lead, the GATE
lead.
Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (IGCT)
Is a power semiconductor electronic device, used for switching electric
current in industrial equipment. It is related to the gate turn-off (GTO)
thyristor. Like the GTO thyristor, the IGCT is a fully controllable power
switch, meaning that it can be turned both on and off by its control
terminal (the gate). Gate drive electronics are integrated with the
thyristor device.
MOS-controlled Thyristor
Is a voltage-controlled fully controlled thyristor. MCTs are similar in
operation to GTO thyristors, but have voltage controlled insulated
gates. They have two MOSFETs of possible conductivity types in their
equivalent circuits. One is responsible for turn-on and other for turn-
off.
Positive voltage on the gate terminal with respect to the cathode turns
the thyristor to the on state.
Negative voltage on the gate terminal with respect to the anode, which
is close to cathode voltage during on state, turns the thyristor to the off
state.
Static Induction Thyristor
Is a thyristor with a buried gate structure in which the gate electrodes
are placed in n-base region. Since they are normally on-state, gate
electrodes must be negatively biased to hold off-state.
Thyristor Applications
Thyristors, or silicon controlled rectifiers, SCRs are used in many areas of
electronics where they find uses in a variety of different applications.
• AC power control (including lights, motors, etc.)
• Overvoltage protection crowbar for power supplies.
• AC power switching.
• Control elements in phase angle triggered controllers.
• Within photographic flash lights where they act as the switch to discharge
a stored voltage through the flash lamp, and then cut it off at the required
time.
Integrated Circuit
Is a piece of specially prepared silicon into which a very complex
electronic circuit is etched using photographic techniques. Silicon chips
can contain computer processors, memory and special devices. The
chip is very fragile and so is normally surrounded by a tough plastic
package, and electrical contact with the chip is provided through metal
legs sticking out of the package.
Two Advantages of ICs
• Cost
- Cost is low because millions of transistors are printed as a complete
unit by photolithography and not constructed as one transistor at a
time.
• Performance
- Performance is higher since the components switch quickly,
consuming little power.
Large Scale Integrated Circuit
A very complex integrated circuit, which contains well over 100
interconnected individual devices, such as basic logic gates and
transistors, placed on a single semiconductor chip. Abbreviated LSI
circuit. Also known as chip circuit; multiple-function chip.
Types of Integrated Circuit
• Transistor – transistor Logic (TTL)
• Emitter-coupled Logic (ECL)
• Complementary Metal-oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
• Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EP-ROM)
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Transistor-transistor Logic (TTL)
is a class of digital circuits built from bipolar junction transistors (BJT)
and resistors. It is called transistor–transistor logic because both the
logic gating function (e.g., AND) and the amplifying function are
performed by transistors (contrast with Resistor–transistor logic (RTL)
and Diode–transistor logic (DTL).
Emitter-coupled Logic (ECL)
In electronics, emitter-coupled logic (ECL) is a high-speed integrated
circuit bipolar transistor logic family. ECL uses an
overdriven BJT differential amplifier with single-ended input and
limited emitter current to avoid the saturated (fully on) region of
operation and its slow turn-off behavior. As the current is steered
between two legs of an emitter-coupled pair, ECL is sometimes
called current-steering logic (CSL), current-mode logic (CML) or current-
switch emitter-follower (CSEF) logic.
Complementary Metal-oxide Semiconductor (CMOS)
is a technology for constructing integrated circuits. CMOS technology is
used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital
logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits
such as image sensors (CMOS sensor), data converters, and highly
integrated transceivers for many types of communication.
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EP-ROM)
is a type of memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is
switched off. In other words, it is non-volatile. It is an array of floating-
gate transistors individually programmed by an electronic device that
supplies higher voltages than those normally used in digital circuits.
Once programmed, an EPROM can be erased by exposing it to
strong ultraviolet light source (such as from a mercury-vapor light).
Random Access Memory (RAM)
is a type of data storage used in computers that is generally located on
the motherboard. This type of memory is volatile and all information
that was stored in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off. Volatile
memory is temporary memory while ROM (read-only memory) is non-
volatile and holds data permanently when the power is turned off.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out
the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic
arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified
by the instructions.
Principles of Maintenance
• All actions necessary for retaining an item, or restoring to it, a
serviceable condition, include servicing, repair, modification,
overhaul, inspection and condition verification
• Increase availability of a system
• Keep system’s equipment in working order
Purpose of Maintenance
• Attempt to maximize performance of production equipment
efficiently and regularly
• Prevent breakdown or failures
• Minimize production loss from failures
• Increase reliability of the operating systems
Principle Objectives in Maintenance
• To achieve product quality and customer satisfaction through
adjusted and serviced equipment
• Maximize useful life of equipment
• Keep equipment safe and prevent safety hazards
• Minimize frequency and severity of interruptions
• Maximize production capacity – through high utilization of facility
Reactive Maintenance
Reactive maintenance (also known as “breakdown maintenance”) are
repairs that are done when equipment has already broken down.
Reactive maintenance focuses on restoring the equipment to its normal
operating condition. The broken-down equipment is returned to
working within service specifications by replacing or repairing faulty
parts and components.
Advantages of Reactive Maintenance
• Lower initial costs – as your systems are new, they require little
maintenance so you save on parts and emergency labor.
• Requires fewer staff – complex repairs tend to be outsourced
reducing the need for internal staff.
• No planning needed – technicians repair equipment when it fails. As
fails are unpredictable, no time is spent planning the repairs.
Disadvantages of Reactive Maintenance
Due to the unpredictable nature of reactive maintenance, there are a
number of disadvantages:
• Difficult to control budgets – as equipment failures can be
unpredictable, labor and spare parts may not be readily available so
organizations may end up paying a premium for emergency parts
shipping, travel time and out of hours support.
• Shorter life expectancy of assets - Reactive maintenance does not
keep the systems running in optimal “as new” condition. Over time,
systems that have been maintained deteriorate faster so don’t
maximize their initial capital cost investment.
• Safety issues - When work is scheduled, technicians have time to
review the standard procedures and safety requirements to complete
the job correctly. Technicians tend to take more risks when
maintenance work is reactive as they are under pressure to get
systems running without delay.
• Time consuming - Reactive repairs tend to take longer due to a
number of factors including time to diagnose, travel time, time to pull
parts from stores or emergency order, time to pull correct manuals
and schematics etc.
• Sporadic equipment downtime - planned maintenance can be
written into the production schedule whereas unplanned repairs can
happen anytime. Also, there is the uncertainty around the length of
delay due to the repair.
• Inefficient use of resources - Technicians spend time running around
looking for the correct manuals and schematics, ordering the right
parts etc trying to diagnose and fix the issue.
• Interferes with planned work - Emergency repairs are usually
prioritized at the expense of planned work. Planned work may be
pushed or cancelled completely.
• Collateral Damage - A minor issue could quickly into a major system
repair. If your engine is low on oil, it could result in a completely
seized engine. I personally had a water leak that spilt onto an
electronics cabinet, causing tens of thousands of dollars in damaged
electronic boards.
• Indirect costs - Unplanned downtime can lead to late orders if
equipment cannot be returned to production in time. This can
damage reputations and impact revenues.
• Repeat issues - Reactive maintenance does the bare minimum to get
the system up and running again. If not repaired correctly, the issue
could reoccur and cause more downtime.
• Higher energy costs - If you don’t service your car, it burns more fuel!
When equipment is not properly maintained, it uses more energy.
Doing simple things like greasing moving parts or changing filters can
reduce energy consumption by 15%.
When Should Reactive Maintenance Be Used?
Reactive maintenance should only be performed on components that
are inexpensive, easy to replace, where the failure does not cause
collateral damage in the system or where the cost of reactive
maintenance is not greater than preventative maintenance. Reactive
maintenance is also ideal for business that cannot plan work due to the
nature of the industry.
Preventive Maintenance
- The scheduled inspection, testing and maintenance of critical
electrical components.
Scheduled
1. Start with a plan.
2. Depending on the type of maintenance and the environment the
frequency can vary from 1 to 5 years.
3. Be proactive
High Voltage vs Low Voltage
Low voltage – 120 to 600 volt equipment
High voltage – over 600 volt equipment
Typical Low Voltage Deficiencies
1. Overloading
2. Code violations
3. Loose connections
4. Trash, contamination or storage
5. harmonics
Typical High Voltage Deficiencies
1. Corona or tracking
2. Stress cone failure
3. Loose connections
4. Dirt or contamination
Condition Monitoring
Condition monitoring of electronics helps to optimize the use of
products, with regards to condition based maintenance, reuse and
refurbishment, and adapting the reliability of a product more precisely
to actual use profiles.
Generator
Safe Precautions
General Hazards
1. Installation, repair and maintenance should always be in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and
recommendations.
2. Exhaust fumes emitted by generator sets contain poisonous gases
like carbon monoxide that can be life threatening and result in
death. Exhaust systems must be properly installed, adequate
ventilation must be provided to ensure unobstructed flow of
cooling and ventilating air, and emissions must be directed away
from inhabited zones.
3. The area around the generator must be clean and free of clutter
and any combustible material that can be hazardous.
4. The equipment must be regularly inspected and defective or
damaged parts must be replaced in a timely manner.
5. It is essential that the operating personnel remains alert at all times
while working with the generator.
6. The unit should not be opened or dismantled while it is functioning.
Moving or hot parts should not be tampered with. Battery cables
should be disconnected before proceeding to work on the
generator to eliminate any possibility of an accidental start-up.
Electrical Hazards
1. All power voltage supplies should be turned off at the source while
installing or servicing the generator.
2. All electrical connections, such as wires, cables and terminals must
be properly insulated and covered, and should not be touched with
bare hands or while in contact with water. This is essential to
prevent the occurrence of an electric shock.
3. The frame of the generator and any external conducting parts
should have proper grounding / earthing wiring. This should never
be disconnected.
4. Wiring, cable and cord sets must be of the recommended capacity.
Switchboard
The role of a switchboard is to allow
the division of the current supplied to
the switchboard into smaller currents
for further distribution and to provide
switching, current protection and
(possibly) metering for those various
currents.
Circuit Breaker
is an automatically
operated electrical switch designe
d to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by
overload or short circuit. Its basic
function is to detect a fault
condition and interrupt current
flow.
Basic Guidelines regarding safe handling of Electricity
1. Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch
or try repairing any electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands.
It increases the conductivity of electric current.
2. Never use equipment with frayed cords, damaged insulation or
broken plugs.
3. If you are working on any receptacle at your home then always turn
off the mains. It is also
4. Always use insulated tools while working.
5. Electrical hazards include exposed energized parts and unguarded
electrical equipment which may become energized unexpectedly.
Such equipment always carries warning signs like “Shock Risk”.
Always be observant of such signs and follow the safety rules
established by the electrical code followed by the country you’re in.
6. Always use appropriate insulated rubber gloves and goggles while
working on any branch circuit or any other electrical circuit.
7. Never try repairing energized equipment. Always check that it is de-
energized first by using a tester. When an electric tester touches a
live or hot wire, the bulb inside the tester lights up showing that an
electrical current is flowing through the respective wire.
8. Never use an aluminum or steel ladder if you are working on any
receptacle at height in your home. An electrical surge will ground
you and the whole electric current will pass through your body. Use
a bamboo, wooden or a fiber glass ladder instead.
9. Know the wire code of your country.
10. Always check all your GFCI’s once a month. GFCI (Ground Fault
Circuit Interrupter) is a RCD (Residual Current Device). They have
become very common in modern homes, especially damp areas
like the bathroom and kitchen, as they help avoid electrical shock
hazards.
11. Always use a circuit breaker or fuse with the appropriate current
rating. Circuit breakers and fuses are protection devices that
automatically disconnect the live wire when a condition of short
circuit or over current occurs.
12. Working outside with underground cabling can be dangerous. The
damp oil around the cable is a good conductor of electricity and
ground faults are quite common in the case of underground cabling.
13. Always put a cap on the hot/live wire while working on an electric
board or service panel as you could end up short circuiting the bare
ends of the live wire with the neutral.
14. Take care while removing a capacitor from a circuit. A capacitor
stores energy and if it’s not properly discharged when removed it
can easily cause an electric shock.
15. Always take care while soldering your circuit boards. Wear goggles
and keep yourself away from the fumes. Keep the solder iron in its
stand when not in use; it can get extremely hot and can easily cause
burns.
Circuit Breaker Panel Potential Electrical Hazards and
Their Symptoms
• Power Outages fuses need replacement or circuit breakers need
resetting frequently
• Overrated Panel electrical panel contains fuses or circuit breakers
rated at higher currents than the ampacity (current capacity) of their
branch circuits, some times called “overamped” or “overfused”
• Dim/Flickering lights dim or the size of your television picture LIGHTS
shrinks often
• Arcs or Sparks bright light flashes or showers of sparks anywhere in
your electrical system
• Sizzles/Buzzes unusual sounds from the electrical system
• Overheating parts of your electrical system, such as switch plates,
wall outlet covers, cords and plugs may be warm. These should never
be hot-painful to touch, or discolored from heat
• Permanently using extensions to extend the home wiring system for a
long period,
• Installed instead of being used temporarily to connect some item
• Appliances with a cord too short to reach the wall outlet
• Loose Plugs attachment plugs that wobble or pull out of a wall outlet
easily
• Damaged cut, broken, or cracked insulation
Electrical Motor
is an electrical machine that
converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The reverse of
this would be the conversion
of mechanical energy into electrical
energy and is done by an electric
generator.
Periodic Maintenance
• inspect the motor at regular intervals;
• remove powder, dust, oil and dirt on the fan and fan cover; this helps
air to circulate and keep the motor cool;
• check the condition of the seal rings and V-rings;
• check the electrical and mechanical connections and the
tightening/anchor nuts and bolts;
• check the condition of the bearings, listening for strange noises or
vibrations.
Assembly/disassembly instructions:
1. Motor disassembly: free the motor from its couplings with the
operating part. Take off the fan cover and fan, removing the relative
fastenings. Remove the key. Unscrew and remove the screw tie bars
holding the motor together. Take out the flange or front shield,
extracting it from the casing and from the bearing. Extract the rotor
from the support of the opposite shield, taking care not to damage
the winding
2. Replacing the bearings: extract the bearings with a special
extractor. New bearings must be mounted using a press or buffer
resting on the inside ring, or using the heat mounting method. Pre-
lubricated shielded bearings that do not require greasing should be
used for all kinds of motors.
3. Stator rewinding: to be done at qualified workshops only; this
however will invalidate the Motovario guarantee.
4. Assembly: follow the disassembly instructions in reverse order. The
only warning is to take care when mounting the seal ring on the
cap, after cleaning its seat and turning the ring correctly with its
concave surface facing outwards. On completion of maintenance
and inspections, run functional and safety checks (thermal
protection, brake, etc.).
Starters
is a device that controls the use of electrical power to equipment,
usually a motor. As the name implies, starters "start" motors. They can
also stop them, reverse them, and protect them. Starters are made
from two building blocks, Contactors and Overload Protection.
1. Contactors control the electric current to the motor. Their function
is to repeatedly establish and interrupt an electrical power circuit.
2. Overload Protection protects motors from drawing too much
current, overheating, and from literally "burning out".
A starter turns an electric motor or motor controlled electrical

equipment on or off, while providing overload protection. Starters
represent another evolution in motor control applications.
Two Main Types of Starters
• Manual starter
• AC Magnetic Motor Starters, commonly known as Motor Starters
Manual Starter
Operating a manual starter is fairly simple and straightforward: a
button or toggle (mounted directly on the starter) is pressed to start or
stop the connected electrical equipment. Mechanical linkages from the
buttons or toggle force the contacts to open and close, starting and
stopping the motor.
Often, a manual starter is the best choice for an application because it
offers:
• Compact physical size
• Choice of enclosures
• Low initial cost
• Motor overload protection
• Safe and economical operation
Magnetic Motor Starter
The other main type of starter is the AC magnetic motor starter. These
starters are commonly used and often, the term Motor Starter is used
in reference to the AC Magnetic Motor Starter. Motor starters offer
some additional capabilities not available in a manual starter, most
importantly, remote and automatic operation.
Motor Starter Panel on Ships : Maintenance and
Routines
Motor starter panel routines includes inspection and maintenance of
motor’s starter panel.
1. Starter panel routines mean inspection and cleaning of contactor’s
(the switch inside the starter panel box controlling the on and off of
the motors) contacts.
2. Checking of connections in the starter panel
3. Cleaning of the complete
starter panel
4. Checks in the terminal
box on the motor for
loose connections
5. Visual inspection of
overall starter panel
Why Starter Panel Routines and Maintenance are
Important?
Every time we switch on the motor, the contacts in the panel get
energized as electricity flows through the contacts (high current flows
during starting). At the time of on/off of the switch, a spark is
generated in the contacts for a fraction of seconds. In case of poor
contacts, this spark will damage the same, leading to pitting/scoring
marks in the contacts along with carbon deposits on the contact
surface.
Safety Measures to be Followed While Starting Motor
Starter Panel Routines
1. Switch off the main power supply from the circuit breaker
2. Take out the main fuses in the starter panel, and if required control
fuses as well
3. Put the lock out tag
4. Inform the engineer who is in charge of that particular machinery
How to Carry Out Motor Starter Panel Maintenance?
1. Open the motor starter panel and the contactors. This would a
need special ‘T’ type key, which is found with the electrical officer.
The panel can be opened when the breaker is switched off.
2. Take out the moving contacts and the arc huts. Keep a very fine
emery paper, good evaporative type contact cleaner, and a clean
cloth for cleaning and maintenance purpose.
3. Mark the moving contacts from where it was removed; clean the
fixed and moving contacts, and the arc huts.
4. Fix the contacts as per the markings and check for any lose
connections inside the panel.
5. By visual inspection we can identify the contact’s condition. Take
out the contact, clean it by a smooth cloth or a very fine emery
paper and measure the contact’s width by a Vernier caliper at 3
different places. Note down the values.
6. Simultaneously take a same type of new contact, measures and
note down the width values measured in 3 different places. Now
compare the values to find out the actual contacts condition.
7. If difference between the values is bigger, replace the contact with
a new one (same type).
8. Also make sure that the measured value of a single contact must be
same on both sides in both moving and fixed type contacts,
otherwise there is a high possibility of sparks generation.
Important Points
If cleaning of deposited carbon is not carried out at regular intervals, it
can lead to two main issues:
1. A poor contact – which will increase the spark amount and
frequency
2. Increase of fire hazard – The deposited carbon will act as fuel for
fire
Checking for Loose Connections
Inside the motor starter panels, check should me carried out for loose
connections to avoid short circuit, spark or accidents.
How to Check for Loose Connections?
1. Tighten the loose screws using a Screw driver, if found any
2. Using your hand, try to pull out the wires slowly. If any wire comes
out completely or more than it should, take it out and reconnect
3. Check the insulation of the connected wires, as because of aging
and sparks there is a possibility of damage to the wires
Cleaning of the Starter Panel
• The motor starter panel should always be maintained clean to reduce
fire hazards
• Clean the whole starter panel by a wet cloth and use brushes where
hands cannot reach
• A vacuum cleaner can be used to remove dust
Checking the terminal box of the motor
Motor is a dynamic machine, and thus there will always be vibrations.
This leads to loose connection in the terminal box of the motor.
1. Open the terminal box of the motor by loosening the nuts
2. Check the tightness of the connection by shaking the wires and
use the correct size spanner to tighten the connections
If there are any loose connections, it will lead to sparks in the terminal
box causing fire in the motor.
Short circuit is also possible because of a loose connection.
After the maintenance is done on the motor starter
panel:
1. Remove the lock out tag
2. Insert the main and control fuses in the starter panel
3. Switch on the main power supply from the circuit breaker
4. Inform the Engineer who is in charge of that particular machinery
5. Start the machine and check the starter panel if there is any
abnormal sound.
Distribution System
Transformer
is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic
induction produces an electromotive force across a conductor which is
exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Commonly, transformers are
used to increase or decrease the voltages of alternating current in
electric power applications.
Maintenance of Power Transformer
A power transformer is most costly and essential equipment of an
electrical transformer. So for getting high performance and long
functional life of the transformer, it is desired to perform various
maintenance activities. Not only that, a power transformer also
requires various maintenance actions including measurement and
testing of different parameters of the transformer.
Monthly Basis Maintenance of Transformer
1. The oil level in oil cap under silica gel breather must be checked in
one month interval. If it is found the transformer oil inside the cup
comes below the specified level, oil to be top up as per specified
level.
2. Breathing holes in silica gel breather should also be checked
monthly and properly cleaned if required, for proper breathing
action.
3. If the transformer has oil filled bushing the oil level of transformer
oil inside the bushing must be visually checked in the oil gage
attached to those bushing. This action also to be done monthly
basis.
If it is required, the oil to be filled in the bushing up to correct level. Oil

filling to be done under shutdown condition.
Daily Basis Maintenance and Checking
There are three main things which to be checked on a power
transformer in daily basis and they are :
1. Reading of MOG (Magnetic Oil Gage) of main tank and conservator
tank.
2. Color of silica gel in breather.
3. Leakage of oil from any point of a transformer.
Yearly Basis Transformer Maintenance Schedule
1. The auto, remote, manual function of cooling system that means,
oil pumps, air fans, and other items engaged in cooling system of
transformer, along with their control circuit to be checked in the
interval of one year. In the case of trouble, investigate control circuit
and physical condition of pumps and fans.
2. All the bushings of the transformer to be cleaned by soft cotton
cloths yearly. During cleaning the bushing should be checked for
cracking.
3. Oil condition of OLTC to be examined in every year. For that, oil
sample to be taken from drain valve of divertor tank, and this
collected oil sample to be tested for dielectric strength (BDV) and
moisture content (PPM). If BDV is low and PPM for moisture is
found high compared to recommended values, the oil inside the
OLTC to be replaced or filtered.
4. Mechanical inspection of Buchholz relays to be carried out on
yearly basis.
5. All marshalling boxes to be cleaned from inside at least once in a
year. All illumination, space heaters, to be checked whether they
are functioning properly or not. If not, required maintenance action
to be taken. All the terminal connections of control and relay wiring
to be checked an tighten at least once in a year.
6. All the relays, alarms and control switches along with their circuit, in
R&C panel (Relay and Control Panel) and RTCC (Remote Tap
Changer Control Panel) to be cleaned by appropriate cleaning
agent.
7. The pockets for OTI, WTI (Oil Temperature Indicator & Winding
Temperature Indicator) on the transformer top cover to be checked
and if required oil to be replenished.
8. The proper function of Pressure Release Device and Buchholz relay
must be checked annually. For that, trip contacts and alarm
contacts of the said devices are shorted by a small piece of wire,
and observe whether the concerned relays in remote panel are
properly working or not.
9. Insulation resistance and polarization index of transformer must be
checked with battery operated megger of 5 KV range.
10. Resistive value of earth connection and rizer must be measured
annually with clamp on earth resistance meter.
11. DGA or Dissolve Gas Analysis of transformer Oil should be
performed, annually for 132 KV transformer, once in 2 years for the
transformer below 132 KV transformer and in 2 years interval for
the transformer above 132 KV transformer.
The Action to be taken once in 2 years :
1. The calibration of OTI and WTI must be carried once in two years.
2. Tan & delta; measurement of bushings of transformer also to be
done once in two years.
Maintenance of Transformer on Half Yearly Basis
The transformer oil must be checked half yearly basis that means once
in 6 months, for dielectric strength, water content, acidity, sludge
content, flash point, DDA, IFT, resistivity for transformer oil.
Maintenance of Current Transformer
Current Transformer or CT is very essential equipment installed in an
electrical substation for electrical measurement and protection
purpose. If a current transformer does not perform properly, there may
be huge disturbance in the system due to malfunctioning of protection
relays.
Open Circuit
is a circuit where the
path has been
interrupted or "opened"
at some point so that
current will not flow. An
open circuit is also called
an incomplete circuit.
Short Circuit
is an electrical circuit that
allows a current to travel along
an unintended path, often
where essentially no (or a very
low) electrical impedance is
encountered.
Earthing/ Grounding System
is circuitry which connects parts of the electric circuit with the ground,
thus defining the electric potential of the conductors relative to the
Earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system can affect
the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply.
Ground/Earth
is the reference point in an electrical circuit from which voltages are
measured, a common return path for electric current, or a direct
physical connection to the Earth.
Fault Current
means the electrical current that flows through a circuit during an
electrical fault condition. A fault condition occurs when one or more
electrical conductors contact ground and/or each other. Types of faults
include phase to ground, double-phase to ground, three-phase to
ground, phase-to-phase, and three-phase. A Fault Current is several
times larger in magnitude than the current that normally flows through
a circuit.
Fluorescent lamp
is a low pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that
uses fluorescence to produce visible light. An electric current in the
gas excites mercury vapor which produces short-wave ultraviolet light
that then causes a phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp to glow.
Safety Tips: How to Handle and Dispose of Broken
Fluorescent Lamps
What Not To do
never use a vacuum to clean up the mercury, as this will only disperse
the mercury into the air and increase your exposure. Along with a
vacuum, never use a broom, as this can cause the mercury to spread,
dividing the mercury into smaller beads, spreading the mercury, and
making the cleanup more difficult. Finally, never handle the mercury
with bare hands.
How to Prepare For Cleaning
• First, have every person exit the room the in which the breakage
occurred.
• Second, in order to prevent poisoning from mercury inhalation,
ventilation to the room is extremely important. Opening a window or
door is thus required.
• Finally, turn off all central air, including heat or air conditioning, in
order to prevent further air dispersion of the mercury.
How To Properly Clean (Hard Surfaces ONLY)
To properly clean up a broken bulb, utilize stiff paper or cardboard to scoop
up any glass fragments and powder.
• Utilize sticky tape to recover remaining fragments of glass and power.
• Once the glass fragments and powder have been cleared, clean the area
with damp paper towels or wet wipes.
• Place all cleanup materials used in a sealable container.
• Although, as stated above, you should not vacuum prior to cleaning the
spill, vacuuming can be performed if fragments of glass still remain
After Disposal
• Thoroughly wash your hands
• Continue to ventilate the room in which the compact florescent bulb
did break and continue to leave the air conditioning or heat off for
several hours to ensure all mercury is extracted from the air.
Cables
is made of two or more wires running side by side and bonded,
twisted, or braided together to form a single assembly, the ends of
which can be connected to two devices, enabling the transfer of
electrical signals from one device to the other. Cables are used for a
wide range of purposes, and each must be tailored for that purpose.
D.C Electrical Systems and

Equipment
Battery System
Battery Maintenance
Inspection
1. Examine the outside appearance of the battery.
• Look for cracks in the container.
• The top of the battery, posts, and connections should be clean, free of
dirt, fluids, and corrosion. If batteries are dirty, refer to the Cleaning
section for the proper cleaning procedure.
• Repair or replace any damaged batteries.
2. Any fluids on or around the battery may be an indication that
electrolyte is spilling, leaching, or leaking out.
• Leaking batteries must be repaired or replaced.
3. Check all battery cables and their connections.
• Look closely for loose or damaged parts.
• Battery cables should be intact; broken or frayed cables can be
extremely hazardous.
• Replace any cable that looks suspicious.
4. Tighten all wiring connections to the proper specification. Make
certain there is good contact with the terminals.
Testing
Visual inspection alone is not sufficient to determine the overall health
of the battery.
I. Specific Gravity Test (Flooded Batteries only)
1. Do not add water at this time.
2. Fill and drain the hydrometer 2 to 4 times before pulling out a
sample.
3. There should be enough sample electrolyte in the hydrometer to
completely support the float.
4. Take a reading, record it, and return the electrolyte back to the cell.
5. To check another cell, repeat the 3 steps above.
6. Check all cells in the battery.
7. Replace the vent caps and wipe off any electrolyte that might have
been spilled.
8. Correct the readings to 80º F (26.6º C):
• Add 0.004 to readings for every 10º F (5.6º C) above 80º F (26.6º C)
• Subtract 0.004 for every 10º (5.6º C) below 80º F (26.6º C)
9. Compare the readings.
10. Check the state of charge using Table 1 below.
The readings should be at or above the factory specification of 1.277
+/- 0.007. If any specific gravity readings register low, then follow the
steps below.
1. Check and record voltage level(s).
2. Put battery(s) on a complete charge.
3. Take specific gravity readings again.
If any specific gravity readings still register low then follow the steps
below.
1. Check voltage level(s).
2. Perform equalization charge. Refer to the Equalizing section for the
proper procedure.
3. Take specific gravity readings again.
If any specific gravity reading still registers lower than the factory
specification of 1.277+/- 0.007 then one or more of the following
conditions may exist:
1. The battery is old and approaching the end of its life.
2. The battery was left in a state of discharge too long.
3. Electrolyte was lost due to spillage or overflow.
4. A weak or bad cell is developing.
5. Battery was watered excessively previous to testing.
II. Open-Circuit Voltage Test
For accurate voltage readings, batteries must remain idle (no charging,
no discharging) for at least 6 hrs, preferably 24 hrs.
1. Disconnect all loads from the batteries.
2. Measure the voltage using a DC voltmeter.
3. Check the state of charge with Table 1 below.
4. Charge the battery if it registers 0% to 70% charged.
If battery registers below the Table 1 values, the following conditions
may exist:
1. The battery was left in a state of discharge too long.
2. The battery has a bad cell.
Batteries in these conditions should be taken to a specialist for further

evaluation or retired from service.
Watering (Flooded Batteries Only)
Flooded batteries need water.
Important Things to Remember
1. Do not let the plates get exposed to air. This will damage (corrode)
the plates.
2. Do not fill the water level in the filling well to the cap. This most
likely will cause the battery to overflow acid, consequently losing
capacity and causing a corrosive mess.
3. Do not use water with a high mineral content. Use distilled or
deionized water only.
Step-By-Step Watering Procedure
1. Open the vent caps and look inside the fill wells.
2. Check electrolyte level; the minimum level is at the top of the
plates.
3. If necessary add just enough water to cover the plates at this time.
4. Put batteries on a complete charge before adding any additional
water.
5. Once charging is completed, open the vent caps and look inside the
fill wells.
6. Add water until the electrolyte level is 1/8″ below the bottom of the
fill well.
7. A piece of rubber can be used safely as a dipstick to help determine
this level.
8. Clean, replace, and tighten all vent caps.
WARNING: Never add acid to a battery.

Cleaning
Batteries seem to attract dust, dirt, and grime. Keeping them clean will
help spot signs of trouble when they appear and avoid problems
associated with grime.
1. Check that all vent caps are tightly in place.
2. Clean the battery top with a cloth or brush and a solution of baking
soda and water.
• When cleaning, do not allow any cleaning solution or other foreign
matter to get inside the battery.
3. Rinse with water and dry with a clean cloth.
4. Clean battery terminals and the inside of cable clamps using a post
and clamp cleaner.
• Clean terminals will have a bright metallic shine.
5. Reconnect the clamps to the terminals and thinly coat them with an
anti-corrosive spray or silicon gel.
6. Keep the area around batteries clean and dry.
Storage
The Most Important Things to Avoid
1. Freezing. Avoid locations where freezing temperature are expected.
Keeping a battery at a high state of charge will also prevent
freezing. Freezing results in irreparable damage to a battery’s plates
and container.
2. Heat. Avoid direct exposure to heat sources, such as radiators or
space heaters. Temperatures above 80° F (26.6º C) accelerate the
battery’s self-discharge characteristics.
Step-By-Step Storage Procedure
1. Completely charge the battery before storing.
2. Store the battery in a cool, dry location, protected from the elements.
3. During storage, monitor the specific gravity (flooded) or voltage.
Batteries in storage should be given a boost charge when they show a
70% charge or less.
4. Completely charge the battery before re-activating.
5. For optimum performance, equalize the batteries (flooded) before
putting them back into service. Refer to the Equalizing section for this
procedure.
Effect of varying frequency and voltage of A.C. Motors

• Induction motors are at times operated on circuits of

voltage or frequency other than those for which the motors
are rated. Under such conditions, the performance of the
motor will vary from the rating. The following is a brief
statement of some operating results caused by small
variations of voltage and frequency and is indicative of the
general changes produced by such variations in operating
conditions.
With a 10 percent increase or decrease in voltage

from that given on the nameplate, the heating at
rated horsepower load may increase. Such
operation for extended periods of time may
accelerate the deterioration of the insulation
system.
In a motor of normal characteristics at full rated

horsepower load, a 10 percent increase of voltage
above that given on the nameplate would usually
result in a decided lowering in power factor. A 10
percent decrease of voltage below that given on the
nameplate would usually give an increase in power
factor.
The locked-rotor and breakdown torque will be

proportional to the square of the voltage applied.
An increase of 10 percent in voltage will result in a

decrease of slip of about 17 percent, while a
reduction of 10 percent will increase the slip about
21 percent. Thus, if the slip at rated voltage were 5
percent, it would be increased to 6.05 percent if the
voltage were reduced 10 percent.
A frequency higher than the rated frequency usually

improves the power factor but decreases locked-
rotor torque and increases the speed and friction
and windage loss. At a frequency lower than the
rated frequency, the speed is decreased, locked-
rotor torque is increased, and power factor is
decreased. For certain kinds of motor load, such as
in textile mills, close frequency regulation is
essential.
If variation in both voltage and frequency occur

simultaneously, the effect will be superimposed.
Thus, if the voltage is high and the frequency low,
the locked-rotor torque will be greatly increased,
but the power factor will be decreased and the
temperature rise increased with normal load.
The foregoing facts apply particularly to general-

purpose motors. They may not always be true in
connection with special-purpose motors, built for a
particular purpose, or as applied to very small
motors.
Motor and Motor Control Troubleshooting Techniques

Initial inspections
Spend a few minutes with the operator
and get as much history as you can on
the failed motor. Find out if anyone else
recently attempted repairs or
modifications. If so, what did they do
and when?
Resistance of line and load circuits to ground
Manually engage the starter and measure the resistance through its
contacts. You should read 0.09 ohms or less. Disengage the starter
and inspect the contacts closely. You'll need to use your
megohmmeter to ground test line and load circuits at the starter.
This will effectively identify the resistance to ground of the starter,
line circuits to the disconnect, and load lines to the motor and
starter windings.
Fuse checks
Check each fuse for continuity (one fuse per phase).

Remember that a blown fuse is a symptom, not a cause. Don't
assume that replacing a fuse will fix the motor. By doing so,
you'll run the risk of causing even more damage and
downtime.
Line to line checks
Now you're ready to check voltage value and balance on the
line (supply) side of the fuseholder. You're testing line to line, so
operating voltage doesn't have a path to ground. If you find an
unreasonable voltage imbalance between any two phases,
that's a problem. A 5% voltage unbalance is normal and
reasonable.
But don't assume the supply is healthy if you get good
readings — even the weakest electrical connection will
pass a voltage reading without applied load.
Motor junction box

By this point you've made preliminary determinations of where the
problem exists. Now it's time to open the motor lead junction box
and check the connections inside. Even if you found nothing wrong
during the preliminary testing, you should still check the motor
connections — many motor failures result from poorly installed wire
nuts or insufficiently insulated connections grounding inside the
junction box or shorting together.
Final tests and procedures

Once you've corrected all identified problems and the motor
is installed and aligned, you're almost done. Energize the
motor and test the controls and overall system operation.
While the motor is running, record the operating voltage and
current, check the balance, and verify that your
measurements are within the nameplate specifications.
Then apply the sense tests again:
•Listen for unusual noises.

•Smell for smoke or hot insulation.
•Feel the motor for excessive heat or vibration.
•Look for possible obstructions.
Motor Speed The operating speed of the AC motor is
determined by the following
In order to use the relationship:
polyphase AC motor as an
adjustable speed device, it
is necessary to control and
adjust the frequency of the
3 φ power applied to its
terminals
MOTOR TEMPERATURE
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
Ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding the motor or

the room temperature in the vicinity of the motor. This is the “threshold
point” or temperature that the entire motor would assume when it is shut off
and completely cool.
TEMPERATURE RISE
Temperature rise is the change in temperature of the critical electrical
parts within a motor when it is being operated at full load. For example: if
a motor is located in a room with a temperature of 78° F, and then is
started and operated continuously at full load, the winding temperature
would rise from 78° F to a higher temperature. The difference between its
starting temperature and the final elevated temperature, is the motor’s
temperature rise.
HOT SPOT ALLOWANCE
Since the most common method of measuring “temperature rise” of a
motor involves taking the difference between the cold and hot ohmic
resistance of the motor winding*, this test gives the average temperature
change of the entire winding including the motor leads and end turns as
well as wire placed deep inside the stator slots. Since some of these spots
are bound to be hotter than others, an allowance factor is made to “fudge”
the average temperature to give a reflection of what the temperature might
be at the hottest spot. This allowance factor is called the “hot spot
allowance”.
MOTOR SURFACE TEMPERATURES
Motor surface temperature is frequently of concern. The motor surface
temperature will never exceed the internal temperature of the motor.
However, depending upon the design and cooling arrangements in the
motor, motor surface temperature in modern motors can be high enough
to be very uncomfortable to the touch. Surface temperatures of 75° to 95°
C can be found on T frame motor designs. These temperatures do not
necessarily indicate overload or impending motor failure.
The basic ambient temperature rating point of nearly all electric motors
is 40° C. This means that a motor, rated for 40° C ambient, is suitable for
installation in applications where the normal surrounding air
temperature does not exceed 40° C. This is approximately 104° F. A very
warm room. This is the starting point.
This extra thermal capability can be used to handle:
•higher than normal ambient temperatures,

•higher than normal temperature rise brought on by overloads, or
•the extra capability can be used to extend motor life and make it more
tolerant of overheating factors caused by high or low voltages, voltage
imbalance, blocked ventilation, high inertia loads, frequent starts, and
any other factors that can produce above normal operating
temperatures.
Torques in Electrical Induction Motors
Torque is the turning force. It is the tendency of a force to rotate an

object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a
pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an object. Mathematically,
torque is defined as the cross product of the position vector of the
point where the force is applied distance vector and the force vector,
which tends to produce rotation.
The torque developed by an

asynchronous induction motor
varies when the motor
accelerates from full stop (or
zero speed) to maximum
operating speed.
Locked Rotor or Starting Torque
The Locked Rotor Torque or Starting Torque is the torque the electrical
motor develop when its starts at rest or zero speed.
A high Starting Torque is more important for application or machines hard

to start - as positive displacement pumps, cranes etc. A lower Starting
Torque can be accepted for centrifugal fans or pumps where the start
load is low or close to zero.
Pull-up Torque
The Pull-up Torque is the minimum torque developed by the electrical
motor when it runs from zero to full-load speed (before it reaches the
break-down torque point)
Break-down Torque
The Break-down Torque is the highest torque available before the
torque decreases when the machine continues to accelerate to the
working conditions.
Full-load (Rated) Torque or Braking Torque
The Full-load Torque is the torque required to produce the rated power
of the electrical motor at full-load speed.
In imperial units the Full-load Torque can be expressed as

T = 5252 Php / nr (1)
where
T = full-load torque (lb ft)
Php = rated horsepower
nr = rated rotational speed (rev/min, rpm)
In metric units the rated torque can be expressed as
T = 9550 PkW / nr
where
T = rated torque (Nm)
PkW = rated power (kW)
nr = rated rotational speed (rpm)
Construction Of Alternator
Construction wise, an alternator generally
consists of field poles placed on the
rotating fixture of the machine i.e. rotor as
shown in the figure above. Once the rotor
or the field poles are made to rotate in the
presence of armature conductors housed
on the stator, an alternating 3 φ voltage
represented by aa’ bb’ cc’ is induced in the
armature conductors thus resulting in the
generation of 3φ electrical power.
There are mainly two types of rotor used in construction of alternator,
1. Salient pole type.
2. Cylindrical rotor type.

Salient Pole Type
The salient pole type of rotor is
generally used for slow speed
machines having large diameters
and relatively small axial lengths.
The pole in this case are made of
thick laminated steel sections
riveted together and attached to a
rotor with the help of joint
The salient features of pole field structure has the
following special feature
1.They have a large horizontal diameter compared to a shorter axial
length.
2.The pole shoes covers only about 2/3rd of pole pitch.
3.Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
4.The salient pole type motor is generally used for low speed
operations of around 100 to 400 rpm, and they are used in power
stations with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.
Cylindrical Rotor
• The cylindrical rotor is generally used for very
high speed operation and are employed in steam
turbine driven alternators like turbo generators.
• The cylindrical rotor type machine has uniform
length in all directions, giving a cylindrical shape
to the rotor thus providing uniform flux cutting
in all directions. The rotor in this case consists of
a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number of
slots along its outer periphery for hosing the
field coils.
Shaft Generator:
Principle of Working
In an A.C generator, in order to
produce power, the stationary
armature conductors are cut by
the rotating magnetic field,
produced by the rotation taken
from the propeller shaft of the
main propulsion plant or main
engine.
Advantages of Shaft generator system:
1. The biggest advantage- it dose not cause air pollution unlike other
traditional methods of power production in ship. Moreover, noise
level is also low.
2. It is more cost effective as it dose not requires expensive fuel for
power generation as main engine itself is a prime mover.
3. The wear and tear and hence the maintenance schedule and costs
for the same reduces for independent driven generator.
4. Installation space is less as it is installed close or in line with the
shaft of the main engine.
5. The investment cost depends on the type and system of the shaft
generator but for a basic designed shaft generator it is low.
6. The installation cost for shaft generator is also low as it doesn’t
require separate foundation, prime mover or exhaust system. Even
time for installation is also less.
7. Low spare parts cost and man – hour cost as the schedule
maintenance period for shaft generator has larger time gap as
compared to diesel generator.
Disadvantages of Shaft generator:
1. For a basic shaft generator system, the efficiency of propeller and
engine is reduced at low propulsion power. Since the frequency
requirement is constant, for a main engine with a CPP, it has to run
at constant speed even at low load.
2. No power generation in port as the prim mover is in stop condition.
3. Due to an additional attachment to shaft of the engine, the load in
the engine also increases, resulting in increase in specific fuel and
cylinder oil consumption when shaft generator is used.
4. Cannot cope up alone when the load demand is high as it may
affect the main engine performance and maintenance.
5. It requires gears, couplings and other complicated arrangement for
installation in some system.
3-Phase Transformer
Introduction
The generation of an electrical power is usually three phase and at
higher voltages like 13.2 KV, 22 KV or some what higher, Similarly
transmission of an electrical power is also at very high voltages like 110
KV, 132 KV, 400 KV. To step up the generated voltages for transmission
purposes it is necessary to have three phase transformers.
Advantages
• Less space
• Weight Less
• Cost is Less
• Transported easily
• Core will be smaller size
• More efficient
• Structure, switchgear and installation of single three phase unit is
simpler
Principal
of
Operation
Principal of Operation
• The three cores are arrange at 120° from each other. Only primary
windings are shown on the cores for simplicity.
• The primaries are connected to the three phase supply.
• The three fluxes is also zero at any instant.
• Hence the centre leg does not carry any flux.
• So if centre leg is removed, any two legs provide the return path for the
current and hence the flux in the third leg.
• This is the general principal used in the design of three phase core type
transformers.
Three Phase Transformer Connection
• The primary and secondary winding of three phase transformers as
three phase winding can be connected in different ways such as in
star or in delta. With suitable connection the voltage can be raised or
lowered.
• In this section some commonly used connections for three phase

transformers are discussed.
• Star-Star connection
• Delta-Delta connection
• Star-Delta connection
• Delta-Star connection
• Open Delta or V connection
• Scott connection or T-T connection
Parallel Operation of Three Phase Transformer
• The transformers are connected in parallel when load on one of the
transformers is more then it capacity
• The reliability is increased with parallel operation than to have single larger
unit.
• The Transformers connected in parallel must have same polarity so that the
resultant voltage around the local loop is zero. With improper polarities
there are chances of dead short circuit.
• The relative phase displacements on the secondary sides of the three
phase transformers to be connected in parallel must be zero. The
transformers with same phase group can be connected in parallel
• As the phase shift between the secondary voltages of a star/delta and
delta/star transformers is 30°, They cannot be connected in parallel.
• But transformers with +30° and -30° phase shift can be connected in
parallel by reversing phase sequence of one of them
• The voltage ratio of the two transformers must be same. This
prevents no load circulating current when the transformers are in
parallel on primary and secondary sides.
• As the leakage impedance is less, with a small voltage difference no
load circulating current is high resulting in large I2R losses.
Polarity marking of 3-phase transformers
The HV terminals of a 3-phase transformer are marked H1, H2 , H3 and
the LV terminals are marked X1, X2, X3. The following rules have been
standardized:
3. These rules are not affected by the

phase sequence of the line voltage
applied to the primary side.
End of Module
Thank You

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