Cells & Cell

Organelles

By:
Dr. Shikhaa Mahajan
Assistant Professor
 Cells
*Smallest living unit
*Most are microscopic
 Principles of Cell Theory
*All living things are made of cells

*Smallest living unit of structure and

function of all organisms is the cell

*All cells arise from preexisting cells

 Prokaryotic Cells
*First cell type on earth
*Is a single celled organism
*Cell type of Bacteria and Archaea
*No nucleus
*Nucleoid = region of DNA concentration locked
in cytoplasm
*Organelles not bound by membranes

*This is a prokaryotic cell

 Eukaryotic Cells
*Nucleus bound by membrane
*Found in higher organisms like plants and animal
cells
*Possess many organelles
 Difference between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cell structure
S.No Characterstic Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1 Size Small Large

2 Cell membrane Rigid cell wall Flexible plasma

membrane

Distinct organelles e.g.

Sub- cellular
3 organelles Absent Mitochondria, nucleus
etc.

Well defined,
Not well defined; DNA is surrounded by a
4 Nucleus found as nucleoid, membrane; DNA is
histones are absent associated with histones
S.No Characterstic Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Usually fission and no

5 Cell division Mitosis
mitosis

Mitochondria absent, Enzymes of energy

Energy enzymes of energy metabolism located
6 metabolism metabolism bound to in mitochondria
membrane

Organelles and Contains organelles

7 Cytoplasm cytoskeleton absent and cytoskeleton

Bacteria, blue- green Plant and animal

8 Examples algae cells
*Eukaryotic cells contain well defined cellular
organelles such as:
*Nucleus
*Mitochondria
*Endoplasmic reticulum
*Golgi apparatus
*Peroxisomes
*Lysosomes
 Cytoplasm
* Cytoplasm is the watery gel inside a cell
* It holds the ORGANelles.
 Cell Membrane
• Boundary of the cell
• Made of a phospholipid bilayer
 Nucleus
• The largest organelle
• Control center of cell
• Usually one per cell
• Structure
• nuclear membrane
• nucleolus
• ribosome factory
• chromosomes
• DNA
• Two membranes:
• Nuclear envelope
• Has numerous pores.
• That permit controlled
movement of particles and
molecules between the
nuclear matrix and
cytoplasm.
* Absent in RBCs and uppermost layer of skin
* Nucleus main space occupier in small lymphocytes
and spermatozoa
* Outer membrane continues with ER
* Pathways in nucleus: DNA replication and RNA
synthesis
* Pathways in nucleolus: RNA processing and
Ribosome synthesis (so nucleolus is prominent in
actively protein making cells)
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• A.k.a. “ER”
• Connected to nuclear
membrane and plasma
membrane
• 2 types:
• Rough ER: studded with
ribosomes; it makes
proteins
• Smooth ER: no
ribosomes; it makes
lipids
• E/M: Railway track appearance
• Microsomes: When cells are fractionated, the
complex ER is disrupted in many places. They are
automatically re-assembled to form microsomes.
• very prominent in cells actively synthesising
proteins, e.g. immunoglobulin secreting plasma
cells.

Fn:
• Synthesis of proteins, glycoproteins and
lipoproteins.
• Detoxification of various drugs is an important
function of ER. Microsomal cytochrome P-450
hydroxylates drugs such as benzpyrine,
aminopyrine, aniline, morphine, phenobarbitone,
etc.
•
 Golgi Apparatus
• Looks like a stack of
plates
• Structure
• Cisternae: Network
of flattened smooth
membranous sacs.
• Cis, medial and trans
cisternae
• ER : Cis : medial :
trans :storage
• Vesicles: Molecules
transported to and
from the Golgi by
means of vesicles
• These are responsible for the secretion of proteins from
the cells (hormones, plasma proteins, and digestive
enzymes).
• It works in combination with ER.
• Newly synthesised proteins are sorted first according
to the sorting signals available in the proteins. Then
they are packed into transport vesicles having different
types of coat proteins. Finally, they are transported into
various destinations; this is an energy dependent
process.
• Destinations: continuous diffusion, added to
membrane, stored in secretory vesicle and lysosomal
packet
 Lysosomes

• Structure
• membrane sac of
digestive enzymes
• Garbage disposal of the
cell
• Endocytic vesicles and
phagosomes are fused
with lysosome (primary)
to form the secondary
lysosome or digestive
vacuole.
• The lysosomal enzymes have an optimum pH around 5. These enzymes
are

a. Polysaccharide hydrolysing enzymes (alpha-glucosidase, alpha-

fucosidase, beta-galactosidase, alpha- mannosidase, beta-
glucuronidase, hyaluronidase, aryl sulfatase, lysozyme)

b. Protein hydrolysing enzymes (cathepsins, colla- genase, elastase,

peptidases)

c. Nucleic acid hydrolysing enzymes (ribonuclease, deo- xyribonuclease)

d. Lipid hydrolysing enzymes (fatty acyl esterase, phospholipases)

• Clinical:

• In gout, urate crystals are deposited in knee joint

• Silicosis results from inhalation of silica particles into the

lungs which are taken up by phagocytes. Lysosomal
membrane ruptures, releasing the enzymes. This stimulates
fibroblast to proliferate and deposit collagen fibers, resulting
in fibrosis and decreased lungs elasticity.

• Lysosomal proteases, cathepsins are implicated in tumor

metastasis.

• Inclusion cell(I-cell)disease is a rare condition in which

lysosomes lack in enzymes (Mannose-6-phosphate- deficient
enzymes ), but they are seen in blood
 Ribosome
• Site of protein synthesis
• Found attached to rough ER
or floating free in cytosol
• Produced in a part of the
nucleus called the nucleolus
 Mitochondria
• “Powerhouse of the cell”
• Cellular respiration occurs here
to release energy for the cell to
use
• Has its own strand of DNA
• Absent in RBCs. The tail of
spermatozoa is fully packed with
mitochondria.
• Structure:
• Bound by a double membrane
• Inner membrane
• Outer membrane.
• The space between these two is
called intermembranous space.
• Inner membrane convolutes into
cristae and this increases its surface
area.
• Both the membranes have different
appearance and biochemical
functions
• The inner mitochondrial membrane
contains the enzymes of electron
transport chain (Chapter 19). The
fluid matrix contains the enzymes of
citric acid cycle, urea cycle and
heme synthesis.
* Cytochrome P-450 system present in mito- chondrial inner
membrane is involved in steroidogenesis.
* Superoxide dismutase is present in cytosol and mito-
chondria
* Membrane are synthesised under the control of cellular
DNA. The division of mitochondria is under the command of
mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondrial ribosomes are different
from cellular ribosomes.
* Antibiotics inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis do not
affect cellular processes, but do inhibit mitochondrial
protein biosynthesis.
 Peroxisomes
• The peroxisomes have a granular
matrix.
• 0.3–1.5 μm diameter.
• They contain peroxidases and
catalase.
• They are prominent in leukocytes
and platelets.
• Peroxidation of polyunsaturated
fatty acids in vivo may lead to
hydroperoxide formation, R- OOH
→ R- OO•.
• The free radicals damage
molecules, cell membranes, tissues
and genes.
 Peroxisomes
• Deficiency of peroxisomal matrix proteins can lead to adreno
leuko dystrophy (ALD) (Brown-Schilder’s disease): AR, Defect
in insufficient oxidation of very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA).
Features: progressive degeneration of liver, kidney and brain.

• In Zellweger syndrome, proteins are not transported into the

peroxisomes. This leads to formation of empty peroxisomes or
peroxisomal ghosts inside the cells.

• Primary hyperoxaluria : defective peroxisomal metabolism of

glyoxalate derived from glycine
 Cytoskeleton
• Filaments & fibers:

• Made of 3 fiber types

• Microfilaments
• Microtubules
• Intermediate filaments
• 3 functions:
• mechanical support
• anchor organelles
• help move substances
 Subcellular entities, their functions
and biochemical markers
S.No Subcellular Biochemical marker
Functions
entity
•Transport across cell
membrane
1 Cell membrane •Bears receptors and Na+/ K+ -ATPase
enzymes
•Cell- cell recognition
•DNA replication
2 Nucleus •Cell division DNA ploymerase
•Control of RNA & Protein
synthesis
Endoplasmic •Protein synthesis Glucose-6-
3 reticulum •Lipid metabolism phosphatase
•Xenobiotic metabolism
S.No Subcellular Biochemical marker
Functions
entity
Post- translational
4 Golgi apparatus modification of proteins & Galactosyl transferase
their sorting
•ATP synthesis •Succinate
5 Mitochondria •Fatty acid oxidation dehydrogenase
•Krebs cycle •Glutamate
•Cytosolic Ca+ regulation dehydrogenase
6 Lysosomes •Intracellular digestion Acid phosphatase
•Detoxification
7 Peroxisomes •Fatty acid oxidation •Catalase
•Detoxification of H2O2 •Uric acid oxidase
•Glycolysis Lactate
8 Cytoplasm • Fatty acid synthesis dehydrogenase
•Bears the cytoskeleton
 That’s my
cellular story…
Any
Questions?