Chapter 3: BATTERIES –

VEHICLE BATTERIES
Introduction
 The battery is an electrochemical device. It converts chemical
energy into electrical energy.
 The battery produces electricity to operate the starting motor
and ignition system while starting the engine.

 Discharging - Battery changes chemical energy into

electrical energy - Current flow out of the battery
 Charging - Electrical energy is converted into chemical energy
- Battery stores the energy until it needed
 Automotive Batteries
 An automotive battery is a type of
rechargeable battery that supplies electric
energy to an automobile.

 Automotive batteries (usually of lead-acid

type) provide a nominal 12-volt potential
difference by connecting six galvanic cells
in series.

 Each cell provides 2.1 volts for a total of

12.6 volt at full charge.

 Lead-acid batteries are made up of plates

of lead and separate plates of lead
dioxide, which are submerged into an
electrolyte solution of about 35% sulfuric
acid and 65% water.
The function of Battery
1. To operate starter motor, ignition system, relays during
cranking of the engine
2. Supply all of the electrical power for the car whenever the
engine is not running
3. Help the charging system in providing electricity when
demand is above the output of the charging system
4. Store electrical energy for extended periods
5. Act as a voltage stabilizer that smoothen the current
through the vehicle electrical system
6. To allow dynamic memory and alarm system to remain
active when the vehicle is left for a period of time
Only the battery as power supply.

 When engine is stopped, the battery operates all electrical

devices .
 When engine is starting, the battery operates the starter
motor discharged current flows from the battery
When only the alternator is the power supply

 After the engine starts, the alternator operates all electrical

devices & recharges the battery at the same time - charging
current flows into the battery
When both are used as a power supply

 Right after the engine is started, if the electrical load is too

great for the alternator, the battery contributes electrical
power - discharged current flows from the battery
 While the car is running, almost all power is supplied by
the alternator.
 An imbalance in the relationship between the battery and
the alternator may cause the battery to become discharge.
Construction of the Battery
 An automobile battery contains;
1. diluted sulphuric acid (electrolyte)
2. positive plates
3. negative plates
Construction of the Battery
 Internally, a battery is separated into several cells (usually six in
the case of automobile batteries) and in each cell there are several
battery elements (plates), all submerged in the electrolyte
 The positive plates and negatives plates are each connected
together by separate plate straps
 These groups of positive and negative plates are then placed
alternately, separated by separators and fibre glass mats .
 Grouping the plates in this way serves to enlarge the contact area
between the active materials and the electrolyte, allowing a
greater amount of electricity to be supplied.
Construction of the Battery
Construction of the Battery
1. Positive Plates
 Lead peroxide (brown colour) as active material formed on mesh / grid framework
Strap together to form positive plate group
Standard car battery has 1.52 mm grid thickness - One plate less is
common practice

2. Negative Plates
. Pure lead (grey colour) sponge lead as active material formed on mesh / grid
framework
Strap together to form negative plate group
Standard car battery has 1.40 mm grid thickness -One plate more
is common practice

3.Separator
 Insulated and corrosion resistant material such as PVC, paper based, glass fiber
Must have correct pore structure for the electrolyte passage - Prevent
positive & negative plate from touching.
Construction of the Battery
Construction of the Battery
4.Grid
 To conduct electricity to and from active material and to
support the active material
 Grid is made of lead + antimony - but promotes electrolyte
gassing (loss of electrolyte)
 Grid of lead + calcium is used for maintenance free battery
minimum loss of electrolyte

Heavy duty
Construction of the Battery
5.Container / battery case
 Plastic container, corrosion resistance material
 It is divided into six compartments or cells
 Upper and lower electrolyte level markers are provided on
the translucent battery case showing electrolyte level
 The plates are raised up off the bottom of the case with ribs
to prevent them from shorting out if any of the active
materials should happen to fall from the plates
Construction of the Battery
6. Vent Plugs
 Vent plugs are caps for the holes that are used for adding
 electrolyte
 They are also designed to separate the hydrogen gas (from when
the battery charges) and sulphuric acid mist that are present in
the air inside the battery by allowing the hydrogen gas to escape
through the vent holes and the sulphuric acid mist to condense on
the sides of the vents and drop back into the battery
Construction of the Battery
7. CELL CONNECTORS: Heavy, cast alloy metal straps are welded to the
negative terminal of one cell and the positive terminal of the adjoining cell
until all six cells are connected in series.

8. CELL PARTITIONS: Part of the case, the partitions separate each cell.

9. TERMINAL POSTS: Positive and negative posts (terminals) on the case

top have thick, heavy cables connected to them. These cables connect the
battery to the vehicle's electrical system (positive) and to ground
(negative).

10. ELECTROLYTE: A mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O).

It reacts chemically with the active materials in the plates to create an
electrical pressure (voltage). And, it conducts the electrical current
produced by that pressure from plate to plate. A fully charged battery will
have about 36% acid and 64% water.
 S.G (Specific Gravity)

•Electrolyte - Sulfuric acid & distilled water(H2O)

• Electrolyte that are used in batteries today have a specific gravity (S.G) of
either 1.26 or 1.28 (at 20°C) when the battery is fully charged .
• The difference is due to the particular ratio of distilled water to sulphuric acid -
the electrolyte having a S.G of 1.26 contains 65% distilled water and 35%
sulphuric acid while the electrolyte having a S.G of 1.28 contains 63% distilled
water and 37% sulphuric acid
 Battery Identification Codes
 Batteries that are made in Japan are given a battery
identification code according to a Japan Industrial Standard
(JIS)
 The code indicates the battery capacity, dimensions and the
position of the positive terminal (right or left side)
Battery Identification Codes
1.Performance
 This indicates the battery's capacity indirectly. The chart shows the
relationship between battery identification codes and battery
capacity. The capacity is expressed in ampere-hours
Battery 10 I Battery Battery 10 Battery
code capacity code capacity
IS-hour rate) IS-hour rate)
288 17 R/L 24 65 D 26 R/L 52
34817R/L 27 75 D 26 R/L 52
288 19 R/L 24 80 D 26 R/L 55
348 19 R/L 27 65 D 31 R/L 56
36820 R/L 28 75 D 31 R/L 60
38820 R/L 28 95D31R/L 64
46824R/L 36 95E41 R/L 80
50824 R/L 36 105E41 R/L 83
55824 R/L 36 115E41 R/L 88
32 C 24 R/L 32 130E41 R/L 92
50D20R/L 40 115F51 96
55 D 23 R/L 48 150 F 51 108
65 D 23 R/L 52 145 F 51 112
.
48 D 26 R/L 40 170 F 51 120
55 D 26 R/L 48
Battery Identification Codes
2) Battery Width and Height
 The battery's width and height combination is indicated by
one of the eight letters (A to H)

Width (mm) Height (rnrn)

A 162 127
B 203 127 or 129

C 207 135

0 204 173

E 213 176
F 213 182

G 213 222
H 220 278
Battery Identification Codes
3.Position of the Positive Terminal
 The position of the positive terminal of a battery is indicated
either by R (right side), L (left side) or blank
Battery Identification Codes
CELL THEORY
 A lead-acid cell works by a simple principle: when two different metals are
immersed in an acid solution, a chemical reaction creates an electrical
pressure.
 Lead dioxide (Pb02) has a positive electrical charge. The other metal is
sponge lead (Pb). It has a negative electrical charge. The electrolyte, acid
solution is a mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H20).

 If a conductor and a load are connected between the two metals, current
will flow. This discharging will continue until the metals become alike and
the acid is used up. The action can be reversed by sending current into the
cell in the opposite direction. This charging will continue until the cell
materials are restored to their original condition.
Battery Electromotive Force (EMF)
 The electromotive force (EMF) generated by one cell is
approximately 2.1 V, regardless of the quantity or size of
the plates
 Since automobile batteries have six cells that are connected
in series, their nominal output EMF is about 12 V
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION
 A lead-acid storage battery can be partially discharged and
recharged many times. There are four stages in this
discharging/charging cycle.

 1. CHARGED: A fully charged battery contains a negative

plate of sponge lead (Pb), a positive plate of lead dioxide
(Pb02), and electrolyte of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and water (H20).
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION
2. DISCHARGING : As the battery is discharging, the electrolyte becomes
diluted and the plates become sulfated
 The electrolyte divides into hydrogen (H+) and sulfate(S042-)
 The ion hydrogen (H+) combines with oxygen (02-) from the positive plate
to form more water (H20).
 The sulfate combines with the lead (Pb) in both plates to form lead sulfate
(PbS04)

Chemical reaction equation

(Discharging)

At Positive Plate:
Pb02+ S042- + 4H+ + 2e- PbS04 + 2H20
At Negative Plate:
Pb + S042- PbS04 + 2e-
Net reaction equation
Pb02 + 2H2S04 + Pb 2PbS04 + 2H20
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION
3. DISCHARGED: In a fully discharged battery, both plates
are covered with lead sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte is
diluted to mostly water (H2O).
 ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION
4. CHARGING: During charging, the chemical action is reversed. Sulfate
(S042-) leaves the plates and combines with hydrogen (H+) to become
sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
 Free oxygen (0) combines with lead (Pb) on the positive plate to form lead
dioxide (Pb02).
 Gassing occurs as the battery nears full charge, and hydrogen bubbles out
at the negative plates, oxygen at the positive.

Chemical reaction equation

(Charging)

At Positive Plate:
PbS04 + 2H20 Pb02 + S042- + 4H+ + 2e-
At Negative Plate:
PbS04 + 2e- Pb + S042-
Net reaction equation
2PbS04 + 2H20 Pb02 + 2H2S04 + Pb
Battery Capacity Rating
 Battery capacity is the amount of electrical energy the battery
can deliver when fully charged.
 All six cell storage batteries have the same voltage but they
may have a different capacity.
 Capacity is a measure of how much current it can produced
and how long it can sustain this current.

 4 methods of defining battery

capacity:
1.Reserve capacity rating
 Defined as the time in minutes for the fully charged battery
voltage to fall to 10.5 V with a constant load of 25 A at 80˚F
(26.7'C) - how long the battery can sustain a 25 A discharge.
 Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have RC ratings
ranging from 55 to 115 minutes.
Battery Capacity Rating
2.Cold Cranking Amperes (CCA)
 The current that the battery will give at 0˚F (-17.8˚C) for a
specified interval of time while maintaining a voltage of at
least to an end voltage - three standard - BS (British
Standard), DIN (German Standard) and SAE (Society of
Automotive Engineers

Standard Duration End Voltaqe Battery size CCA

Standard JIS model

BS 60 seconds 8.4 volts
NS40ZAL 36B20 275

DIN 30 seconds 9.0 volts NS60 46B24 325

NS70 65026 420

SAE 30 seconds 7.2 volts
N70 65031 445

Table 1 :Standard applied 55023 55023 355

DIN 360

Table 2 : CCA battery rating

Battery Capacity Rating
3. AMP-HOURS (AH)

• Amp-Hour Rating specifies, the current the battery can provide for 20
hours at 80˚F (26.7˚C) while maintaining a voltage of at least 1.75 volts per
cell (10.5 volts total for a 12- volt battery).
• For example, a battery that can deliver 4 amps for 20 hours is rated at 80
amp-hours (4 x 20 =80).
Example: A 50Ah battery can expect to deliver 2.5 Ampere for
20 hours
•Batteries used on various vehicles have AH ratings ranging from 40
to 80 amp-hours.

4. POWER (WATTS)

The battery's available cranking power may also be measured in

watts. The Power Rating, in watts, is determined by multiplying the
current available by the battery voltage at 0˚F (-1 7.8˚C).
•Batteries used on various vehicles have power ratings ranging from
2000 to 4000 watts.
•P=IV where ( P=power, I=current, V=voltage )
Internal Resistance
 All batteries have internal resistance but it is
very low. Eg; 0.005 ohm for a good condition
battery and may be 0.05 ohm for a fair condition
battery.
 The internal resistance of the battery causes the
battery's output voltage to decrease
 As battery age, internal resistance increase

V = E-Ir

 V is actual terminal voltage, E theoretical

voltage, r is internal resistance
 Batteries Self-discharge
 Over a period of time, a battery which is not used will
gradually lose its charge due to several factors;

1. Internal chemical reaction due to antimony deposits on

negative plate.
2. Leakage currents due to dirt and fume to form conducting
path
3. Sediment at the bottom of the battery

Self discharge at the rate of 0.2% to 1 % of the battery

Ah per day, depending on the age of the battery and
temperature.

 To avoid high temperature discharge, Store in cool place

 Charge battery every month if not use
 Once fully discharge it may not fully recover even after
recharge
Sulphation
 Under normal discharging, fine crystals of lead sulphate are
formed on the plates and by charging, these are
convertible

 If battery is left discharge for long period, the crystal turns

into coarse lead sulphate which are not easily convertible

 Sulphation causes the reduction in battery Ah and also

slowdown the charging process causing the battery to
become very hot

 In minor sulphation cases, extended period of charging at

low current will improve but in serious cases the battery is
condemned due to internal short
Battery Maintenances
&
Services
Safety precautions :
• Wear gloves and safety glasses.

• Remove rings, watches, other jewelry.

• Never use spark-producing tools near a battery.

• Never lay tools on the battery.

• When removing cables, always remove the ground cable first.

• When connecting cables, always connect the ground cable last.

• Do not use the battery ground terminal when checking for ignition
spark.

• Be careful not to get electrolyte in your eyes or on your skin, the

car finish, or your clothing.

• If you have to mix battery electrolyte, pour the acid into the water
- not the water into the acid.

• Always follow the recommended procedures for battery testing

and charging and for jump starting an engine.
Battery Maintenance
Battery Maintenance includes:
1. Making visual inspection of the battery
2. Cleaning the battery top, terminal and
cable clamp
3. Testing the battery
4. Charging the battery
Battery Visual Inspection
Look for:
1. Electrolyte leakage
2. Electrolyte level
3. Crack in the case (may result from
overtightening the hold-down clams) or
top (may result from using wrong
wrench)
4. Loose or missing hold-down clamps
5. Loose terminals (may result from
overtightening the cable bolts)
Cleaning the Battery
 Corrosion around the terminals and clamps can be cleaned
by using a battery-terminal brush (with a solution of
baking soda and water)
Battery Trouble Diagnosis
 The two main causes of battery troubles are overcharging and
undercharging

1. Overcharging
 Causes damage to the plate and shortens battery life.
 The high voltage can also damage other electrical and electronic
components
 For a vent-cap battery - shown by frequent addition of water
 For a maintenance-free battery - shown by low electrolyte level

Other signs of overcharging:

1. Voltage> 15 volt
2. Electrolyte dry too fast
3. Vigorous bubbles
4. Pungent smell
5. Surface always wet
6. Bulb always burnt
7. Battery bulge
Battery troubles diagnosis
2.Undercharging
 Possible causes include:
1. Charging system malfunction
2. Defective connections in charging system
3. Excessive load demands on battery
4. Defective battery
5. Self-discharge resulting from battery sitting
idle for long periods
6. Excessive key-off current drain
Causes of Battery Failure
 All batteries have a limited life, but some
conditions can shorten that life.

1.ELECTROLYTE LEVEL: A low electrolyte

level exposes active material, and any
sulfate hardens and resists chemical
action.
 Loss of electrolyte may be caused by a
cracked case, poor maintenance (not
adding water when needed).
 Severe overcharging which causes high
internal heat and excessive gassing.
 Too much electrolyte is just as bad.
Overfilling dilutes the electrolyte and
spillage may corrode battery terminals.
Causes of Battery Failure
2.OVERCHARGING: Overcharging by the vehicle's charging system
or separate battery charger causes excessive gassing and high
internal heat. Too much gassing can wash active materials off the
plates, as well as cause excessive water usage. Too much heat can
oxidize the positive plate material and warp the plates.

3.UNDERCHARGING: A faulty charging system will not maintain

the battery at full charge. Severe undercharging allows sulfate on
the plates to become hard and impossible to remove by normal
charging. The weak electrolyte freezes easier. The undercharged
battery may fail to crank the engine.

4.CYCLING: Repeated cycling from fully charged to fully discharged

and back - may cause loss of active material from the positive
plates. This reduces battery capacity and its useful life.
Causes of Battery Failure
5. TEMPERATURE: High temperatures from overcharging or engine
heat can shorten battery life.
 Low temperatures can cause freezing of weak electrolyte. At 0F
(-17.8°C), a fully charged battery provides less than half its
normal power.
 At the same time, the cold engine requires twice as much cranking
power as it does with normal temperatures.
 The electrolyte in a fully charged battery will not freeze until -60°F
or lower, while the electrolyte in a fully discharged battery will
freeze at + 18°F.

6. VIBRATION: A battery must be mounted securely. Vibration can

loosen connections, crack the case, and damage internal
components.
Testing the Battery

 Testing is done to determine whether a battery:

1. Is in good condition
2. Needs recharging
3. Is defective and should be discarded
4. To test the state of charge
- hydrometer for vent-cap battery
- charge indicator for maintenance-free battery
5. To test for performance - battery load test
Electrolyte SG Test : Hydrometer
 Uses a hydrometer to measure the specific gravity of the
electrolyte.
 By measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, it tell if the
battery is fully charged, requires charging, or must be replaced.
 Read the specific gravity indicated on the float. Be sure the float
is drifting free, not in contact with the sides of top of the barrel.

 TEST RESULTS:

1. A fully charged battery will have specific gravity

readings around 1.265.
2. Specific gravity readings below 1.225 usually
mean the battery is run down and must be
charged.
Open-Circuit Voltage Test

 An accurate digital voltmeter is used to check the battery's open-circuit

voltage:

1 . If the battery has just been charged, turn on the headlamps for one
minute to remove any surface charge.
2. Turn headlamps off and connect the voltmeter across the battery
terminals.
3. Read the voltmeter. A fully charged battery will have an open-circuit
voltage of at least 12.6 volts. A dead battery will have an open-circuit
voltage of less than 12.0 volts.
Battery Drain Test (Leak current)
 Check for battery drain or leak current using an
ammeter.
 Connect the ammeter in series between the battery
negative terminal and ground cable connector.
 Common vehicles typically show less than .020 amp of
current to maintain electronic memories.
 A reading of more than .035 amp is unacceptable. If the
ammeter reads more than .035 amp,
locate and correct the cause of excessive Excessive
battery drain
battery drain.
Charge-indicator Condition
 It is a built-in hydrometer to show
the condition and state of charge of
the battery.
 A green indication means the
battery is over 65% charged.

 If indicator is dark, the battery is

less than 65% charged- the
battery should be charge.

 If the indicator is light yellow or

clear, the electrolyte level is low- if
it happen to a maintenance-free
battery, replace the battery.
Heavy-Load test
 After the battery passes the state of charge test, check for the
performance by battery capacity test or battery load test. This
measures terminal voltage while the battery is discharging at
high rate.
 To perform the test;
1. The load is applied using a tester (Sun VAT-40) that includes a
voltmeter, an ammeter and a carbon-pile resistor.
2. Load the battery by turning the Load Increase control until the
ammeter reads 3 times the amp- hour (AH) rating or one-
half the cold-cranking ampere (CCA) rating.
3. After 15 seconds, read the voltage and remove the load. Battery
voltage should read 9.6 volts or higher.
4. If below the minimum, recharge the
5. battery and retest it. If fails again,
discard the battery
Battery Charging
 A battery charger must be used if the alternator cannot
charge the battery adequately due to long period of no use.

 Slow Charging
 A slow charger feeds small amount of current into the
battery. Charging time is longer (about 12 hours at 10
amps).
 The chemical action inside the battery is improved and the
active materials are plated back on the battery plates better.

 Fast Charging /Boost Charging

 A fast charger forces a high current flow into the battery for
rapid recharging.
 Fast charging allow engine starting in a matter of minutes.
 A high charging current can be used below the gassing
voltage. If exceeded, the battery starts to gas and leads to
water loss in battery.
 Done for emergency case only because it can cause damage
to battery
FACTORS AFFECTING CHARGING
 Five factors affect battery charging;
FACTORS AFFECTING CHARGING
1. TEMPERATURE: As the temperature decreases the electrolyte resists
charging. A cold battery will take more time to charge; a warm
battery, less time. Never attempt to charge a frozen battery.

2. STATE-OF-CHARGE: The condition of the battery's active materials

will affect charging. A battery that is severely discharged will have
hard sulfate crystals on its plates. The vehicle's charging system may
charge at too high of a rate to remove such sulfates.

3. PLATE AREA: Small plates are charged faster than large plates.
When sulfation covers most of the plate area, the charging system
may not be able to charge the battery.

4. IMPURITIES: Dirt and other impurities in the electrolyte increase

charging difficulty.

5. GASSING: Hydrogen and oxygen bubbles form at the plates during

charging. As these bubble out, they wash away active material, cause
water loss, and increase charging difficulty.
Charging rate
Jump-starting
 Proper connections in jump starting a dead battery with a
booster battery to prevent sparks.
1. First, connect cable(red) to the two positive terminals.
2. Then, connect one end of the jumper cable (black) to the
negative terminal of the booster battery.
3. Connect the other end to a good ground away from the
dead battery.
4. If a spark occurs, it won't be near the battery.
Battery Storage
 For new battery;
1. Unfilled: unlimited
2. Filled, conventional: 3 (max 6) months
3. Filled, completely maintenance-free: 18 months
4. Battery must be stored in a cool and dry place and
in a good state of charge
5. Do not stack batteries on top of each other without
additional support, because the weight can collapse
the case and the plates in the bottom battery will
bend.
Removing and Replacing Battery
To remove a battery:
1. Disconnect the ground cable from the battery
2. Loosen the clamp bolt then pull the clamp from the terminal
3. If the clamp sticks, use a battery-clamp puller
4. Disconnect the positive cable from the battery
5. Remove the battery

To install the battery:

1. Do not reverse the terminal connections
2. Reconnect the positive cable first then the
ground cable
3. Tighten the hold-down clamps but do not
over-tighten
THE END

Any question?
 Assignment
 Differentiate between battery slow
charging and fast charging, and give an
advantages and disadvantages of each
methods.