Temperature System

Chapter 11

1
Common features and applications of
furnaces
• Usually built of metal and brick, because these
materials will withstand high temperatures.
• The shapes of industrial furnaces vary, but all of them
confine the heat generated inside their chambers.
• Industrial furnaces provide high temperatures to
harden metals by a process called heat treating.
• Industrial furnaces provide heat to heat-treat
materials, whether by cooking food or hardening
metals.
• They are also designed to melt materials, such as
butter to pour over popcorn or iron for foundry use.
2
 Combustion furnace
• The most common heat source in industry is the
combustion furnace.
• It usually combines fossil fuel and oxygen at a
high temperature to produce heat.
• Smaller furnaces are ideal for heat treating
machined gears to make their metal harder.
• For a higher temperature, the blast furnace is
used. The high temperature is achieved by forcing
large amounts of air into the burning chamber.
• The blast furnace is used to manufacture
products such as glass, steel, and cement.
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Combustion furnace

4
 Arc furnace
• The arc furnace is used in the process of melting steel
in a foundry.
• The voltage is applied by connecting one power supply
terminal to an electrode and the other terminal to a
crucible made of a conductive material such as
graphite.
• When the voltage is applied, the electrode is in contact
with the metal to be melted.
• Current begins to flow and an arc is formed at ignition.
• The heat from the arc melts the metal to a liquid state.

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Arc furnace

6
 Resistance furnace
• Resistance furnaces use heating elements similar to a
kitchen oven.
• The element has large resistance, which produces heat
when current flows through.
• The elements are placed inside an insulated chamber
where all surfaces of the object or material being
heated are uniformly exposed to heat.
• This type of furnace is used in batch processing for
heat treating purposes. It is also used in burn-in tests
where integrated circuits are exposed to high
temperatures for several hours to test their reliability.

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Resistance furnace

8
 Induction furnace
• Induction furnaces are also used to melt metals.
• Again, insulated chambers are used to hold the work to
be heated.
• Coils of wire are wrapped around the chamber and AC
current is applied.
• A magnetic field constantly expands and contracts
around the coils.
• As the field sweeps across the iron, an eddy current is
induced, which causes molecules to move around.
• As the molecules shift positions, an intense heat results
in a very short period of time.

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Induction furnace

10
 Cooling Systems
• The most common type of refrigeration
system is the household refrigerator.
• Refrigeration systems are used in the food
processing industry to keep perishable
products at low temperatures.
• They are also used in other manufacturing
fields, such as chemical plants, to cool liquids
to required levels before they are used in a
blending operation.

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 Cooling Systems
• The modern refrigerator operates on the
principle that evaporation absorbs heat energy,
and condensation gives off heat energy.
• By controlling these two reactions mechanically,
refrigerators are able to perform cooling.
• Freon is evaporated and condensed in the
refrigerator system.
• This refrigerant is used because it evaporates
quickly when exposed to room temperature.
12
 Temperature measurement
requirement
• To provide good control of industrial processes, accurate
measurements of temperature are essential.
• There are several reasons to monitor temperatures in
process control applications:
1. Precise temperature conditions are required when combining
two chemicals to form a compound.
2. Over-temperature conditions that could cause excessive
pressure must be avoided in an enclosed system to prevent
ruptures or explosions.
3. Temperatures must be kept below freezing to prevent stored
food from spoilage.
4. By ensuring that the heating system is consuming energy
efficiently, fuel costs can be minimized and environmental
conservation concerns can be met.

13
 Temperature indicating devices
• A number of industrial situations require an
indication that a predetermined temperature
has or has not been reached.
• For such situations, several different types of
heat-sensitive materials have been developed
solely for indication and monitoring purposes.
• These temperature-sensing materials are
made of crystalline solids.

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 Temperature indicating devices
• The materials operate on the principle that when
heating occurs, a temperature will be reached at
which the solids change color or melt to a liquid.
• The change provides a visual indication that the
necessary temperature has been reached.
• Temperature indicators are available in the form
of crayons, paints, pellets, and labels.
• They are applied directly to or placed near the
object being monitored.
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Temperature indicating devices

16
 Temperature indicating devices
• Crayons The crayon is available in stick form. They are
manufactured in 100 different temperature ratings,
ranging from l00°F tor2500°F. The work piece is marked
with the crayon. When the predetermined
temperature is reached, the crayon liquefies, notifying
the observer that the work piece has reached that
temperature.
• Paints A paint indicator is a lacquer that dries to a dull
finish. When the predetermined temperature has been
reached, its finish turns glossy and transparent. Paints
are often used on very smooth surfaces to which
crayons cannot stick.

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 Temperature indicating devices
• Pellets work on the same principle as crayons and
paints. Pellets are used in applications where extended
heating periods are involved or when oxidation of a
work piece might obscure a crayon or paint marking.
They are used when visual indication must be observed
at a distance.
• Labels have one or more heat sensitive indicators
sealed under transparent heat resistant windows. Each
indicator changes color at a specific temperature.
Labels are available in nonreversible styles to show
peak temperature and reversible styles to indicate
changing temperatures.

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 Thermometers
• Glass thermometers
• Filled-Bulb thermometers
• Bimetallic thermometers

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Glass Thermometer

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 Filled Bulb Thermometer
• Filled-bulb thermometers are more durable
than glass thermometers.
• They are also capable of providing feedback
action for control purposes and recording
temperature variations over a period of time.

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Filled Bulb Thermometer

22
 Bimetallic Thermometer
• The bimetallic thermometer is made of two
dissimilar metal strips that are physically bonded
together.
• Each metal has a different expansion ratio.
• As temperature changes, the strip will bend in the
direction of the metal with the lower expansion
rate. The deflection of the strip settles at a
position that represents the temperature value.
• The strip can be attached to an indicator scale,
recording chart, or linkage used to provide a
feedback signal for a closed-loop system.
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Bimetallic Thermometer

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Bimetallic Thermometer

25
 Electronic Temperature Sensors
• Thermistors
• RTDs
• Thermocouples

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 Thermistor
• Its name is a derivation of the term thermal
resistor
• The thermistor exhibits a large change in
electrical resistance when subjected to a
relatively small change in temperature.
• Temperature variations can be caused either
by a change in the ambient temperature
external to the thermistor or, internally, by a
change in the current through the thermistor.

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Thermistor

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 Thermistor
• As temperature increases the resistance of the
material decreases.
• This characteristic of the thermistor is called a
negative temperature coefficient.
• The letters NTC are placed inside the thermistor
symbol to indicate this characteristic.
• Because of NTC, thermistors have other
applications as well beside temperature
measurement e.g. surge suppression.
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Thermistor - Measurement

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Thermistor – Measurement using
Adjustable Bridge

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Thermistor – temperature
compensation

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Thermistor – Surge protection

33
 Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTDs)
• The resistance of electrical conductivity metals
varies directly with temperature.
• Therefore, metals have a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC). This means that as their
temperature increases, their resistance increases.
• Metals can be used in a temperature sensing
device called a resistance temperature detector
(RTD).
• Two metals commonly used in RTDs are nickel
and platinum.
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RTDs measurement

35
Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTDs)

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RTD Types

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RTD Application – Overcurrent
protection

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RTD Application – Motor Starting

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 Thermocouple
• It is made of two dissimilar metal wires joined
together.

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 Thermocouple
• The junction is exposed to heat from the
surrounding ambient temperature.
• This causes a small number of electrons to
drift from one metal and accumulate in the
other metal.
• The slight accumulation of electrons causes a
small EMF to develop between the metals.

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Thermocouple

42
Thermocouple

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Thermocouple

44
Thermocouple – Cold Junction compensation

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Thermocouple

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Thermocouple

47
 Thermocouple -Selection
• Temperature Range
• Environment (oxidizing, reducing, corrosive
etc)
• Sensitvity
• Accuracy
• Cost

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Comparison of Electronic
temperature sensors

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 THERMODYNAMIC TRANSFER
• The transmission path of thermodynamic
transfer / heat transfer can be through
materials that are solids, liquids, gases, or a
vacuum.

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 Conduction
• The process by which heat is transferred by a
solid is called conductance

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 Convection
• Since most fluids are poor conductors of heat,
very little transfer takes place through the
process of conductance.
• The transfer of heat through fluids such as
liquids and gases takes place through a
process called convection.

52
 Radiation
• Thermal energy can also be transferred
through a vacuum by a process called
radiation.
• In theory, bundles of energy are radiated away
from atoms in the heat source as wavelike
patterns that travel at the speed of light.
• Radiated heat transfer also takes place
through air.

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 Radiation
• A prime example is the sun, which radiates
heat through the vacuum of space and
through the earth’s atmosphere

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• Most temperature instruments are invasive
devices that make physical contact with the
solids, liquids, or gases being measured.
• They make direct temperature readings as
thermal energy is transferred by conduction to
the sensing element.

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• It is also possible to take temperature readings
without making physical contact by using a
noninvasive device.
• A method called radiation thermometry infers
temperature by measuring the thermal energy
radiated from the surface of the measured
body.
• The instrument used to make these readings is
usually referred to as a pyrometer

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
Instruments of this type are ideally suited for applications where
conventional sensors cannot be employed, such as

1. When objects are moving, such as rolling mills in steel production,

paper manufacturing, glass making, and conveyor belts.
2. Where temperatures are extremely hot, such as in furnace
atmospheres.
3. Where noncontact measurements are required because of
contamination, such as in food and pharmaceutical production.
4. Where corrosive and hazardous conditions exist, such as around
high voltage conductors.
5. Where measurements are taken from a distance.

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Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
The principle of operation of radiation
thermometry is based on the basic law of
physics which states that every object at a
temperature above absolute zero radiates
electromagnetic energy.

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• The frequency range of the electromagnetic
waves includes visible-light and lower-
frequency infrared light.
• As the temperature of the object changes, the
frequency also changes.
• For example, if the temperature rises, the
frequency increases and the wavelength
becomes shorter.

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• This principle is illustrated by observing metal
being heated.
• As it gets hotter, the color changes from red,
to yellow, to white.
• The color change is a result of the frequency
increasing.

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• By focusing the electromagnetic energy waves
emitted by the measured object (target) on a
detector element, measurements are taken.
• The signal from the element is electronically
processed and the frequency is converted into
a proportional temperature readout for
display

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• Radiation thermometry theory is based on the
assumption that the total energy emitted by a
body is the result of its temperature.
• An object with this capability is referred to as
a blackbody.

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• Most objects, however, do not radiate energy
from temperature alone.
• Instead, they also reflect, and transmit (as
fiber optics do) radiant energy.
• Therefore, the total radiated energy sum of
emitted energy (E), reflected energy (R), and
transmitted energy (T)

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Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer

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 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• For a perfect blackbody, E = 1, R = 0, and T = 0.
• For a non-blackbody object, the value for E is
still1.0, but the values for R and T are greater
than 0.
• To account for the reflective and transmitted
energy of an object, a term referred to as
emissivity must be considered when making
measurements.

66
 Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer
• Emissivity is defined as the ratio of total
energy radiated by an object to the emitted
energy of a blackbody made of the same
material at the same temperature.
• Emissivity can be accounted to measure the
temperature.
• However, a low emissivity means that
radiation thermometry isn’t a good option.

67
 Pyrometer Types
• Broadband
• Optical
• Ratio

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 Broadband Pyrometer
• A broadband pyrometer uses a lens system
that directs the radiation onto a blackened
reference surface inside the instrument.
• The filter is used to pass electromagnetic
waves within a‘ desired frequency range".

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 Broadband Pyrometer
• The energy detector employs a device known
as a thermopile to measure the temperature
of the reference area.
• A thermopile, consists of several
thermocouples connected in series to provide
greater sensitivity to small changes in
temperature

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Radiation Thermometry - Pyrometer

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 Optical Pyrometer
• A viewfinder is positioned to allow observance of the
target and the filament of a light bulb simultaneously
• The object being measured is compared to the
brightness of the filament.
• A current adjustment is made by the operator until
they are both the same intensity, at which time the
filament visually disappears into the background.
• When the brightness of both objects is equal, their
temperatures are also the same. A scale on the current
adjustment knob is calibrated to indicate the
temperature of both the target and the reference
filament.

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Optical Pyrometer

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 Ratio Pyrometer
• The ratio pyrometer differs from other
pyrometers by taking measurements of two
different frequencies emitted by an object.
• First, the radiant energy of a blue wavelength
is passed through a blue filter and its power
strength is measured.
• Then the radiant energy of a red wavelength is
passed through a red filter and measured.

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 Ratio Pyrometer
• The ratio of blue to red energy indicates the
temperature
• The advantage of the ratio technique is that it
is less susceptible than other measurement
methods to dust, steam, and other factors
that distort readings.

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 Field of View
• When using a pyrometer, the target being
difference measured should completely fill the
the instrument.

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