Geological Applications

to Petroleum Reservoir
 Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely
convergence of certain geologic factors and
geologic events.

These Include:
Seal
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock
 Hydrocarbon Generation,
Migration and Accumulation

Seal

Fault
Oil/water
(impermeable)
contact (OWC)

Migration route
Seal
Seal
Hydrocarbon Reservoir
accumulation rock
in the
reservoir rock
Top of maturity

Source rock
 Basic Geologic Principles
• Uniformitarianism
• Original Horizontality
• Superposition
• Cross-Cutting Relationships
 Types of Unconformities
• Disconformity
– An unconformity in which the beds above and below
are parallel
• Angular Unconformity
– An unconformity in which the older bed intersect the
younger beds at an angle
• Nonconformity
– An unconformity in which younger sedimentary
rocks overlie older metamorphic or intrusive
igneous rocks
 Cross-Cutting Relationships

K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity
C
E
F
D Igneous
B
Dike

A
 Unconformity

Paleozoic Rocks

Precambrian Rocks

THE GREAT UNCONFORMITY – GREEN CANYON

Nonconformity

Cambrian sandstone

Pre cambrian schist

NONCONFORMITY – GREEN CANYON
 Geologic Time Chart
Eon Era Period Epoch

Quaternary
period
Quaternary Recent
0 0 0 Pleistocene
Billions of years ago

Millions of years ago

Phanerozoic Tertiary

Millions of years ago

Pliocene
50 10

Cenozoic Era
1

Mesozoic
100 Cretaceous 20 Miocene
(Precambrian)

Tertiary
period
Cryptozoic
2 150 Jurassic 30 Oligocene

200 Triassic 40
Eocene
3
250 Permian 50

4 300 Pennsylvanian
60 Paleocene
Mississippian
4.6 350
Paleozoic

Devonian
400
Silurian

450 Ordovician

500

550 Cambrian

600
Geologic Time Scale - Biostratigraphy
Triassic period Permian period
Jurassic period
Pennsylvanian period
Mississippian period
245 m.y
323 m.y Devonian
146 m.y 208 m.y 290 m.y period
363 m.y
409 m.y
Silurian
439 m.y
65 m.y 1 b.y period
57 m.y 510 m.y 2 b.y
570 m.y Evolution
35 m.y
of cells with
23 m.y nucleus

5 m.y
3 b.y First
0.01 m.y fossil
4.6 billion cells

ERA years ago 4 b.y Oldest rocks

PERIOD dated on Earth
Holocene epoch EPOCH
Rocks
 Classification of Rocks
IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
Rock-forming Source of
material

Rocks under high

Molten materials in Weathering and
temperatures
deep crust and erosion of rocks
and pressures in
upper mantle exposed at surface
deep crust
process

Recrystallization due to
Crystallization Sedimentation, burial
heat, pressure, or
(Solidification of melt) and lithification
chemically active fluids
 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
Breccia Conglomerate

Examples

Sandstone Shale
 Average Detrital Mineral
Composition of Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%) Sandstone (%)
Clay Minerals 60 5

Quartz 30 65

Feldspar 4 10-15

Rock Fragments <5 15

Carbonate 3 <1

Organic Matter, <3 <1

Hematite, and
Other Minerals (modified from Blatt, 1982)
 The Four Major Components
• Framework
– Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
• Matrix
– Clay Size Detrital Material
• Cement
– Material precipitated post-depositionally,
during burial. Cements fill pores and replace
framework grains
• Pores
– Voids between above components
 Sandstone Composition
Framework Grains
KF = Potassium
Feldspar

PRF = Plutonic Rock

Fragment
PRF KF P = Pore
CEMENT Potassium Feldspar is
Stained Yellow With a
Chemical Dye
P
Pores are Impregnated
With Blue-Dyed Epoxy
Norphlet Sandstone, Offshore Alabama, USA
Grains are About =< 0.25 mm in Diameter/Length
 Porosity in Sandstone

Pore
Throat Pores Provide the
Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids

Pore Throats Restrict

Fluid Flow

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Negligible
Porosity
Illite Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation

Migration of
Fines Problem
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Offshore Alabama, USA ~ 10 mm
(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs
Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant Permeability
Reduction

High Irreducible Water

Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA (Photograph by R.L. Kugler)
Effects of Clays on Reservoir Quality

Authigenic Illite Authigenic Chlorite

100 1000
Permeability (md)

100
10

10
1
1

0.1
0.1

0.01 0.01
2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18
Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
 Influence of Clay-Mineral
Distribution on Effective Porosity
fe Clay
Minerals
Dispersed Clay
Detrital Quartz
Grains

fe
Clay Lamination

Structural Clay fe
(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
 Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the Post-
Depositional Chemical and
Mechanical Changes that
Carbonate
Occur in Sedimentary Rocks
Cemented
Some Diagenetic Effects Include
Oil Compaction
Stained Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
The Effects of Diagenesis May
Enhance or Degrade Reservoir
Quality
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela
 Dissolution Porosity

Dissolution of
Partially
Framework Grains
Dissolved
(Feldspar, for
Feldspar
Example) and
Cement may
Enhance the
Pore Interconnected
Pore System
Quartz Detrital
Grain This is Called
Secondary Porosity
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina

(Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler)

Geological and Petrophysical Data
Used to Define Flow Units
Core Pore Petrophysical Gamma Ray Flow
Core Lithofacies
Plugs Types Data Log Units
f vs k Capillary
Pressure

1
Depositional Environments
and Systems

Their Roles in Petroleum Systems

and Hydrocarbon Evaluations
 Depositional Systems
Importance:
• Clastic and carbonate depositional systems form
petroleum reservoirs
• Depositional systems impact reservoir properties
• Depositional systems deposit sediments in predictable,
laterally adjacent facies;
• Reservoir quality, extent, and heterogeneity vary among
facies;
• Stratigraphic petroleum traps may occur where
reservoir facies pinch out.
 Clastic Depositional Systems
Alluvial Fan Deltaic
Strandplain Barrier
Fluvial
Submarine Fan

Aggradational
Progradational
Retrogradational

Modified from Hentz and others, 1997

Clastic Sedimentary Environments
Environment Agent Of Transportation
Sediments
Deposition

Alluvial Rivers Sand, gravel, mud

Lake Lake currents, waves Sand, mud
Desert Wind Sand, dust
Glacial Ice Sand, gravel, mud
Delta River + waves, tides Sand, mud
Beach Waves, tides Sand, gravel
Shallow shelf Waves, tides Sand, mud
Deep sea Ocean currents, settling Sand, Mud
Oil Recovery Efficiency by Depositional System
Depositonal System
Wave-dominated Deltaic
Barrier Strandplain
Fluvial Deltaic
Wave-Modified Deltaic
Fluvial
Fluvial Deltaic Clastic
Back-Barrier Strandplain
Deltaic
Mud-Rich Submarine Fan
Atoll-Pinnacle Reef
Platform Margin
Open Shelf-Ramp
Cretaceous Restricted Platform
Carbonate
Karst-Modified Open Shelf-Ramp
Platform Margin
Paleozoic Restricted Platform
Unconformity Related
0 20 40 60 80 100
Modifed from Tyler, 1984 Average Recovery Efficiency (Percent)
 Types of Fluvial Systems
(Bedload System)

(Mixed load system)

Braided

Meandering

(Suspended load
system)
Anastomosing

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

 Meandering Fluvial System

Cut bank

(modified from Galloway and Hobday, 1983)

 Fluvial Cross Beds
Carrazio Sandstone, Central Texas

Photo by W. Ayers
30 CM
Fossil Dunes

• Sediment sorting

• Constant wind
force

• Constant wind
direction
 Fan Deposition

Example
Alluvial sedimentation
 Sediment Input Mississippi
Delta
Types

Fluvial
Dominated

Wave Tide
Dominated Dominated Tidal energy flux

Wave energy flux

Modified from Galloway and Hobday, 1983; after Galloway, 1975

San Francisco
 Athabasca Delta, Canada
FLUVIAL-DOMINATED DELTA

Distributary

Photo by L. Klatzel-Mudry
STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A.
October 1985

20 mi
NASA PHOTO
STS61B-49-0101 Mouths of the Irrawaddy River, Burma (Myanmar)
November 1985

50 mi

NASA PHOTO
STS068-206-040 Selenga River Delta, Russia October 1994

NASA PHOTO
Mississippi River, Bird’s Foot Delta

NASA PHOTO
STS077-718-054 Nile River Delta, Egypt May 1996

NASA PHOTO
STS033-071-052 Kalimantan Barat Province, Indonesia
November 1989

NASA PHOTO
 Barrier Shoreline
Washover fan

Ebb
Tide
Delta
Flood
Tide
Delta Lagoon

Wind

Back-barrier
marsh
Sea
Shoreface
Sands
Shelf Silts

Modified from Blatt, 1982; after Taverner-Smith, 1982

STS066-126-097 Pensacola, Florida, U.S.A. November 1994

BARRIER SHORELINE
NASA PHOTO
 Carbonate Depositional
Environments and Systems
 Carbonate Reef System
30 km
S N
Back Reef SL Open Water
(Lagoon)
150 Lime Grainstone
m
Reef
Forereef
Miliolids
100 Shelf

Dense lime mudstone

Orbitolina
50 Boundstone Chalky
lime mudstone Globigerina
mudstone

(modified from Wilson, 1975; after Harris et al, 1968)

From Schlumberger
KEY WEST, FLORIDA

NASA PHOTO
ANDROS
ISLAND,
TONGUE
OF THE
OCEAN

NASA
PHOTO

50 mi
 GREAT
BARRIER
REEF,
AUSTRALIA

NASA
PHOTO
 Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile
in a Carbonate Reservoir
Flow unit
Baffles/barriers

SA -97A SA -356 SA -71 SA -344 SA -348 SA -37

SA -251 SA -371 SA -346

3150 3150 3100 3100 3250

3200 3150
3100
3200
3150
3200 3200 3150 3300
3250 3200
3150

3250
3250 3250 3200 3250
3300 3250

3200

3300 3300 3250

3350 3300

3250

3350 3350

From Bastian and others

Structural Features
 Folded Structures

Anticline

Youngest
Syncline rock
Oldest rock
Modified from xxx)
Overturned Folds

Photograph by XXX
 Methods of Structural Evaluation

Structural Structural Map

Cross Section

A A’
1000
SL A’
OIL
-1000
++
-2000 + +
-3000
+
+ + +
OIL/Water
Contact
A
2000 Depth (ft)
 Sedimentary Basin and
Stress Fields
Fault Types Basin Geometries

Rift Related Basin

(Extensional Stress)
Normal fault
Sedimentary Fill

Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)

Thrust fault

Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)

Wrench fault
 Faults

Normal Fault Reverse Fault

Strike direction Strike direction
Fault scarp

Key bed F.W. Dip

F.W. angle
H.W. H.W.
Dip angle
Fault plane Fault plane
Faulting (Normal Faults)

Kabab Canyon, Utah

Strike Slip Fault
(Left Lateral)

Dip Angle
Hydrocarbon Traps

• Structural traps
• Stratigraphic traps
• Combination traps
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps - Fault

Oil or Gas

Fault
Water
 Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
Gas
Shale Oil Oil/Gas Closure
Trap
Contact

Oil/Water
Contact
Oil
Fracture Basement Fold Trap

Salt
Salt Diapir
Oil
Dome

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Conceptual

N
1 1 7O1 5'1 0

1 1 7O1 8'0 0

1 1 7O2 0'5 0
5 3 00 0 0

5 3 50 0 0
0 O45 '2 0 0 O45 '2 0

9915 000 9915 0 0 0

K E RB A U - 1

N H -1
H - 50 1

H V C- 4 0 3
0 O48 ' 1 0 0 O48 '1 0

H V C- 3 0 6

H - 3
H P A- 3 1 2 H D -5 1 3
9910 000 9910 0 0 0

H P -1
H D -1
H - 32 1

H F A- 2 2 6
H J -5 2 4
H R -2 2 7
H - 62 7
H R B - 3H3R1-G
4 R
H 3-0 1G
H - 6 K E RB A U - 2

H H B- 2 3 6 H H -1
H - 9H
B -
I 8
S
H O A- 2 3 8 H K A- 5 4 4
H M -H
1 - 1- 4 4 7
H - 35 1
H E -1
0 O51 '0 0 H Q -1 0 O51 '0 0
H Q A- 3 5 2 G H K -4 5 4
H X -1
H - 36 3 K E RB A U - 3

H L B- 1 6 7 H G A- 4 6 5
9905 000 9905 0 0 0

H W -2 7 6 G
H W -2 7 7

Shown in Seismic
H I -3 8 5

H N -1 b
W H -1

H - 39 7
H U -1 9 7

0 O53 ' 5 0 0 O53 '5 0

9900 000 9900 0 0 0

Folding Trap
K E RB A U - 4

0 O 56 ' 4 0

9895 000
Shown in Map 0 O56 '4 0

9895 0 0 0
1 1 7O1 5'1 0

1 1 7O1 8'0 0

1 1 7O2 0'5 0
5 3 00 0 0

5 3 50 0 0
 Hydrocarbon Traps - Dome

Gas
Oil

Sandstone
Shale
 Fault Trap

Oil / Gas
Conceptual

Shown from Seismic

Fault Trap
Shown in Map
 Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Unconformity Pinch out

Uncomformity Oil/Gas
Oil/Gas

Channel Pinch Out

Oil/Gas

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

 Other Traps
Meteoric
Water
Asphalt Trap
Biodegraded
Oil/Asphalt
Partly
Water Biodegraded Oil

Hydrodynamic Trap Hydrostatic

Head
Shale
Water
Oil
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)
Heterogeneity
Reservoir Heterogeneity in Sandstone
Heterogeneity Effects
Segment Reservoirs
~10 cm

Increase Tortuosity of
Fluid Flow
Calcite cement Heterogeneity May
Result From:
Depositional Features
Oil Diagenetic Effects

Stain Strata Dip +20 Degrees

(Whole Core Photograph, Misoa

Sandstone, Venezuela, by W. Ayers)
4 3 2 1
Reservoir Heterogeneity in Sandstone

Heterogeneity Also May

Result From:
Faults

Fractures
Faults and Fractures may
be Open (Conduits) or
Closed (Barriers) to Fluid
Flow
(Whole Core Photograph, Misoa
Sandstone, Venezuela)
Scales of Geological Reservoir Heterogeneity
Interwell
Well Area Well

Field Wide
Determined
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines, 100's
Statistical m
Modeling,
etc.
1-10 km
Interwell

Reservoir 10's
Sandstone m

100's m

1-10's
Well-Bore

10-100's
m
10-100's mm
mm
Unaided Eye
Hand Lens or
Petrographic or Binocular Microscope
Scanning Electron
Microscope (modified from Weber, 1986)
 Scales of Investigation Used in
Reservoir Characterization
300 m Relative Volume
14
Gigascopic 50 m Well Test 10

300 m
Reservoir Model 12
Megascopic Grid Cell 2 x 10
5m 150 m

2m
Wireline Log 7
1m
Interval 3 x 10
Macroscopic cm 2
Core Plug 5 x 10

mm - mm Geological
Microscopic 1
(modified from Hurst, 1993)
Thin Section
 Stages In The Generation of
An Integrated Geological Reservoir Model
Geologic Activities
Regional Geologic
Framework

Depositional
Model (As Needed)

Core Analysis Diagenetic Structural

Model Model

Integrated Fluid
Log Analysis Model
Well Test Analysis Geologic Model
(As Needed)
Applications Studies
Reserves Estimation
Simulation

Model Testing
And Revision
Example: Integrated of Geological Reservoir Model

Net Thickness
0
decrease

Clay content
increase