Basic topics required for ACT

Science Section
Biology
• Cell Biology
• DNA, RNA and Ribosomes
• Natural Selection
CELL BIOLOGY
Main Sub-topics in Cell Biology
• Organelles of cell
• Functions of cells
• Animal and plant cells
Cells
• Basic structural unit for all organisms
• Just like atoms in a matter
• Small compartments that
hold biological equipment necessary
for survival of an organism
• Smaller pieces that make up cells
are macromolecules and organelles
• Macromolecule - Protein
• Organelle – Mitochondria
• Group together to form tissues and eventually organs
Cell Organelles
• Nucleus
• Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Golgi Apparatus
• Vesicles
• Lysosomes
• Plastids
• Vacuoles
Functions
• In larger organisms
• Main purpose is to organize
• Different cells have different purposes
• i.e. responsibility is divided among group of cells
• Single celled organisms have limited functions (no nervous system, no muscles)

• Cells have problem functioning when they get too big

 Types
• Plant like
• Easier to identify
• Have protective structure
called cell wall
(made of cellulose)
• Organelles  green
chloroplast, water-filled
vacuoles
• Chloroplasts play major
role in photosynthesis
• Animal like
• From tiny microorganism to nerve cells in human brain
• Do not have cell wall
Cell membrane
• Imagine a bag (with some tiny holes) holding all cell pieces and fluids
• Holes – to allow movement of some things in and out (proteins help)
• All cells are contained by a membrane
• Not a solid structure
• Made of mns of smaller molecules
• Flexible and porous container
Constituents of cell membrane
• Mainly made of Proteins and phospholipids
• Phospholipids
• Have a head (hydrophilic) and tail (hydrophobic)
• Create a lipid bilayer (fluid mosaic model)
Membrane proteins
• Many proteins float in lipid bilayer
• 2 types
• Temporary & Permanent
• Inner, outer and trans-membrane
proteins (based on location)
• Peripheral & Integral
• Trans-membrane proteins (integral) crossing the bilayer are imp in
active transport of ions and small molecules
• Each protein is associated with a specific purpose
Peripheral and Integral
• Peripheral Membrane proteins
• Weaker connections
• Temporary
• More in number
• Integral membrane proteins
• Permanently connected
• Embedded in hydrophobic layer
Different membranes of cell
• All cell organelles have a membrane
• Not the same chemical makeup as cell
membrane
• Have different lipids and proteins
• Some organelles have 2 membranes
• Mitochondrion has outer and inner
membrane
• Outer membrane – contains its parts
• Inner – digestive enzymes to break food
Cell Wall
• Only found in plant cells and few other
• Made of cellulose
• Specialised sugar (structural carbohydrate, not used for energy)
• Insoluble in water
• Form long chains to support plants
• Animals digest it using special bacteria
• Offers protection to cell
• Allows to grow to great heights
Plasmodesmata
• Small holes in cell wall
• Cell membranes of neighbouring cells connect through these
• Transfer of nutrients, waste and ions (symplastic pathways)
• Molecules can pass through spaces within cell walls avoiding cells
completely (apoplastic pathways)
Transpiration in plants
• Cells lose water
• When air heats up and WV P decreases
• Water escapes through pores called stomata
• But shape is retained bcoz of cell wall
Cell walls other than in plant cells
• Bacteria, fungi and protozoa
• Not made of cellulose
• Made of chitin (structural carbohydrate)
Cell connection and communication
• Molecular level
• Communication in single celled organisms is different
• 3 types of connections
• Gap Junction
• Desmosomes
• Tight Junction
Gap Junctions
• Cells right next to each other
• Cell membranes of both touch
• Gap Junction is opening from one
cell to other
• Large enough for movement of
cytoplasm
• Connections are called channels
Desmosomes
• Physically connect cells like GJs
• But no opening is created
• Proteins bonding membranes of 2 cells
create desmosomes
• Skin cells have desmosmes
• Distance between cells is about 10 times
wider than GJs
Tight Junction
• When 2 membranes actually bond
into one
• Makes very strong barrier b/w 2 cells
• Form solid walls
• Often found where one area needs to
be protected from contents of other
areas
Cytoplasm
• Fluid filling the cell, aka cytosol
• Used to be called protoplasm
• Also there is special fluid found in cell
organelles like
• mitochondria, ER, golgi apparatus and nucleus
(nucleoplasm)
• Cell organelles are suspended in this
• Microfilaments and microtubules setup a
skeleton of the cell and cytosol fills it
• Many different molecules are dissolved
• Enzymes, fatty acids, sugars and amino acids
• Dissolves waste products before taken into
vacuoles to send them out
Fluids in Nucleus
• Nucleoplasm
• Suspension fluid which holds cell’s chromatin and nucleolus
• Not always present in nucleus
• When cell divides nuclear membrane dissolves
Functions of cytoplasm
• Uses dissolved enzymes to break down larger molecules
• Can be used by organelles
• Glucose cannot be used by mitochondria
• Enzymes break it into pyruvate and sent to mitochandria
Nucleus
• Brain of cell
• Control eating, mov and reproduction
• Not always in centre
• But not even at edges (dangerous)
• Eukaryotic – have defined nucleus
• Prokaryotic – no defined nucleus
• DNA floating around cell in region called nucleoid
Nuclear envelope
• Similar to cell membrane around cell
• Pores and spaces for RNA & proteins
to pass through
• Keeps all chromatin and nucleolus
inside
• Chromatin
• Made of DNA, RNA and nuclear proteins
• DNA and RNA are nucleic acids inside cell
• When cell is dividing chromatin becomes
very compact
• Condensed chromosomes
• Nucleolus – made of RNA and protein
Chromosomes
• Things that make organisms what they
are
• Carry all the info
• Made up of DNA
• DNA segments in specific patterns are
called genes
• usually uncoiled and as loose strands
called chromatin
• Humans – 23 pairs
• Work with other nucleic acids in cell to
build proteins and help in cell division
Other imp info
• mRNA is found in nucleus with DNA
• tRNA is found in cytosol
• Cells with 2 complete sets of chromosomes are called diploids
• Cells with only one set are haploids
Centrioles
• 2 small organelles in every animal-like cells
• Help in cell division
• Mitosis and meiosis
• Made of microtubules (9 groups)
• 2 centrioles next to each other are usually at right angles
• Found in pairs
• Move to opposite ends of nucleus during division
• Groups of threads attached to centrioles during division are called
mitotic spindle
Centrosome
• When cell is not dividing well-defined centrioles are not seen
• Instead a condensed and darker area of cytoplasm is seen ka
centrosome
Ribosomes
• Required for cells to make proteins
• Protein builders or protein synthesizers of
cell
• Connect amino acids to build long chains
• Found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
• Ribosomes float free in cytosol of prokaryotes
as no membrane bound organelles
• ER with attached ribosomes is called rough
ER
Subunits of Ribosome
• Eukaryotes
• 60-S (large)
• 40-S (small)
• Prokaryotes
• Slightly smaller than eukaryotes
• 50-S and 30-S subunits
• This difference in ribosome structure is used to develop drugs to kill
prokaryotic microorganisms causing diseases
• Free ribosomes and ribosomes of mitochondria have structural
differences
Protein synthesis
• mRNA is created in nucleus
• mRNA is sent out of nucleus to ribosomes
• 2 subunits come together and combine with mRNA (lock), start
protein synthesis
• tRNA – nucleic acid in cell (transfer RNA)
• tRNA is bonded to Amino acids floating around the cell
• mRNA offers instructions to ribosomes to connect to a tRNA to form
amino acid
• Ribosome builds a long amino acid to form a part of large protein
Mitochondria
• Power house of cell
• Similar to digestive system
• Take nutrients, breaks them
down and create energy rich
molecules in cell
• Many reactions of cellular
respiration occur in this
• Biochemical processes of
cell are ka cellular
respiration
Cont.
• Some cells have 1000s, some have none
• Muscle cells need lot of energy – so have many
• Nerve cells don’t need many
• If a cell is not getting enough energy to survive, more mitochondria
are created
• Mitochondria can grow larger or combine with other depending on
needs of cell
• Control conc of Ca+2 ions within cell
• Work closely with ER to limit amount of Ca in cytosol
 Structure of Mitochondria
• Shaped perfectly to maximize productivity
• Outer membrane – covers organelle
• Inner membrane – folded creating layered structure called cristae
• more folds  more surface area  more space for reactions to occur
• Similar strategy used by microvilli in our intestine
• Fluid – matrix
• Have own ribosomes and DNA
• Contain granules to control
concentration of ions (still
under exploration)
 Cellular respiration in Mitochondria
• Matrix has water and proteins
(enzymes)
• Proteins take organic molecules (like
pyruvate, acetyl CoA) and chemically
digest them
• Proteins embedded in inner membrane
and enzymes involved in citric acid
cycle ultimately release water and CO2
molecules form breakdown of O2 and
glucose
• Mitochondria
• Only place in cell where O2 is reduced
and eventually broken down into water
Chloroplasts
• Food producers of cells
• Only found in plant cells (and
algae)
• Convert light energy of sun into
sugars (photosynthesis)
• Release O2
• Mitochondria work in opposite
way (use O2 to release chemical
energy from sugars)
 Structure of Chloroplast
• 2 membranes
• Inner – surrounds stroma and grana
(stacks of thylakoids)
• One thylakoid stack is called granum
• Stacks of thylakoid are connected by
stroma lamellae (skeleton keeping all sacs
at safe distance to maximise efficiency)
• Chlorophyll molecules on thylakoid
capture light energy
• Move to stroma where C is fixed and sugars
are synthesized
Energy synthesis
• Chlorophyll  Light energy converted to
chemical energy in form of ATP and NADPH
• Move to stroma and in presence of enzymes
fix the C from CO2
Chlorophyll
• Many types
• Mainly 2 – a and b
• All have common chemical structure called porphyrin ring
ER
• Manufacturing and packing system
• Works with Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, mRNA and tRNA
• Network of membranes connected to nucleus
• Based on function of cell size and structure of ER differ
• Prokaryotes or RBC – no ER
• Cells synthesizing lot of proteins need large amount of ER
Types of ER
• Rough ER
• Sheets or disks of bumpy membranes
• Ribosomes attached to its surface
• Smooth ER
• Tubes
Functioning of ER
• Double membranes form sacs called cisternae
• Protein molecules are synthesized & collected in cisternal space/lumen
• Sent to vesicles (move to Golgi apparatus for additional protein packaging and
distribution)
• Smooth ER
• Strong organelle
• Imp in creation and storage of lipids and steroids
• Steroids – ringed organic molecules used for many purposes
• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR)
• Variation of SER
• Able to store many ions in solution (for use at later times)
• Ex – While running muscles need Ca ions (SR releases them immediately and restores
while resting)
Rough ER
• Attached to nuclear envelope, so direct connection allows mov of molecules
b/w them
• mRNA from nucleus move to ribosome on surface of RER
• Ribosome builds amino acid chain which is pushed into cisternal space of RER
• When proteins are complete, they collect and RER pinches off a vesicle
• Moves to cell membrane or golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus
• Packaging organelle like ER
• Gathers simple molecules and combines
to form complex molecules
• Takes big molecules and packages them in
vesicles (or stores them for later/sends
them out of cell)
• Vesicles are created similarly as in case of ER
(pinched off the membranes and float
through the cell)
• Builds lysosomes (cell digestion machines)
• Absorbs vesicles from RER (so ribosomes
are found)
Working with RER
• Transition vesicle
• Formed when a protein is made in ER
• Floats through cytoplasm to Golgi apparatus and is absorbed
• Secretory vesicle
• After Golgi works on molecules inside sac it is created
• Released into cytoplasm
• Moves to cell membrane and molecules are released out of the cell
Vacuoles
• Storage bubbles in cells
• Larger in plant cells
• Store food or nutrients the cell
need to survive
• Even store waste products (to
protect rest of cell from
contamination),eventually send
them out
 Functions
• Membrane surrounds a mass of fluid
• Fluid has nutrients or waste products
• Plants may use to store water
• When plant cell stop growing, there is
usually one very large vacuole
• Can take up more than half of cell’s volume
• Waste products are slowly broken into
small pieces
• Store things that cell might need as backup
 Role of vacuoles
• Plant cell wall provide support to cells
• Size of cell may increase or decrease depending on amount of water
• Plants do not shrink bcoz of changes in amount of cytoplasm
• Plant cell’s (mostly) volume depends on material in vacuoles
• Vacuoles gain and lose water depending on water availability to plant
• Drooping plant indicates shrinking of
vacuoles
(but maintains basic structure bcoz
of cell wall)
• When water is available vacuoles
are refilled and plant regains
its structure
Microfilaments
• Found in most of the cells
• Long, thin and stringy proteins (actin) whereas microtubules are
round and tube shaped
• Work with microtubules to form the structure that allows cell to hold
its shape, move itself and organelles
Cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments and microtubules combine to form cytoskeleton
• Provides structure
• Connects every organelle and every part of cell membrane
Muscle cells
• Many microfilaments are found in muscle tissue called Myofibrils
• Myosin and actin are the 2 proteins working together to help muscle
cells relax and contract
• Together called actomyosin
• When these protein threads combine with some ions in muscle cell huge
contraction occurs
• Groups of actomyosin contracting are called sarcomeres
• All muscle cells work together to make a muscle contract
Cell Movement
• Microfilaments are necessary
• Microfilaments are often found anchored to proteins in cell
membrane
• Sometimes found floating freely and connected to other filaments and
tubules
• These binding proteins allow microfilaments to push and pull on cell
membrane and help cell to move
Microtubules
• Thick, strong spirals
• Made of protein called tubulin
• Necessary for cell structure
• Also imp in cell division
• Connect to chromosomes, help in their 1st split and move to each new daughter cell
• Part of small pair of organelles called centrioles (help in cell division)
• Not only help in internal cell mov but also form larger structures outside of
cells like cilia and flagella
• Cilia – little hairs outside of paramecium etc. (flap back and forth to help cell move)
• Flagella – long, thick tails to whip around, twirl and push the cell
Lysosomes
• Single member organelles
• Found in almost every animal-like eukaryotic
cell
• Hold enzymes created by the cell
• Purpose – digestion
• Also break down the cell when it dies
• Specialized vesicle holding variety of enzymes
• Enzyme proteins are 1st created in RER
• These are packaged in vesicle and sent to GA
• GA created digestive enzymes and pinches off
lysosomes
• Float in cytosol until needed
Working of lysosomes
• When cell absorbs or eats food lysosomes attach
and release enzymes
• Break down complex molecules
• When cell is starving lysosomes still work
• Will digest cell organelles for nutrients
• It is still wondered that how lysosomes which can
break down complex molecules don’t break
down the membrane that surrounds lysosome
Peroxisomes
• Similar to lysosomes
• Small vesicles found around the cell
• Single membrane organelles containing digestive enzymes to break down
toxic materials in cell
• Hold enzymes that require oxygen (Oxidative enzymes)
• Lysosomes have enzymes that work oxygen-poor areas and lower pH
• Absorb nutrients that cell acquires
• Well known for digesting fatty acids
• Also play a part in digesting alcohol
• So liver cells are expected to have more peroxisomes than most other cells
• Also play a role in cholesterol synthesis and digestion of amino acids
• One of the byproduct of peroxisome digestion is hydrogen peroxide
• Able to contain it and break it down into water and oxygen
• Protein enzymes are created by lysosomes in cell and are inserted
into peroxisome bubble
• Peroxisomes grow till they split into 2
• It is still wondered where does the new membrane come from?
• Bcoz the membrane is significant as it holds toxic byproducts and other
enzymes
• It might be from ER (created in different way than lysosomes)
THANK YOU