MODULE-V

MICROWAVE MEASURMENTS

• Introduction
• Microwave bench measurement setup
• Measurement of
frequency and wavelength
power
VSWR
Impedance
coupling and directivity of directional coupler
dielectric constant
phase shift constant
Introduction:
• At microwave frequencies amplitudes and phase of voltages and
currents are functions of distance and are not easily measurable.
• In some single conductor transmission lines, like waveguide, there
is also no option for measurement of voltage and currents as such
measurements require two conductor systems.
• At microwave frequencies generally power is measured instead of
voltages and currents, provided the line is lossless.
• In addition measurements of the S – parameters, phase shift,
VSWR, noise figure etc are also useful for providing further
information.
 • The direct measuring instruments at microwave frequencies, like vector and
scalar network analyzers, spectrum analyzers, power meters etc., are very
costly.
• Therefore in laboratory microwave measurement is carried out using low
frequency tuned receiver and VSWR meter after modulating the signal with a 1
kHz square wave.

Tuned Detector:
• Schottky barrier diodes
• Detect low frequency square wave modulated microwave signal
• Rectifies the received signal and produces dc current proportional to the
received power
• Also called square – law detector.
VSWR meter:

• A VSWR meter is basically a high gain, high Q and low noise voltage
amplifier that is tuned at the modulating frequency of the microwave
signal (generally 1 kHz).
• The overall gain of the amplifier is about 125 dB which can be altered at
a step of 10 dB by a gain control panel provided with the meter.
• The display panel consists of three scales, namely, (1) normal, (2) expanded and
(3) dB.
• If the VSWR is between 1 to 4 then the top “normal SWR” can be used whereas if
the VSWR is between 3 to 10 then the lower scale of the “normal SWR” can be
used.
• If the VSWR is smaller than 1.3 then the “expanded SWR” scale is used.
• The final scale is used for measurements in dB scale.

• To measure the VSWR, the meter needle is initially adjusted to 1 after

placing the probe in Vmax position within the guide. The gain control,
panel is used for this adjustment.
• Now for any input voltage, the output of the amplifier is measured with
the square law calibrated voltmeter directly in terms of VSWR.
• The input of the VSWR meter is basically the detected output voltage of the
tuned detector that is fed by a coaxial cable.
Power meter:
• A microwave power meter generally consists of a power sensor that converts
the microwave power into equivalent heat energy.
• In practice microwave powers are divided into three category, namely, (1) low
power (< 10 mW), (2) medium power (10 mW to 10 W) and (3) High power (>
10 W).

Schottky Barrier Diode Sensor:

• Zero biased Schottky Barrier Diode

Sensor is used to measure microwave
power as low as 70 dBm.
• They behave as square wave detector and provides an
output current proportional to the input power.
• Since the diode resistance is a function of the diode
temperature, and hence input power, therefore an input
power has a tendency to cause mismatch at the input circuit.
Microwave Sources:
• A microwave source produces a CW carrier oscillation of a desired frequency at a
calibrated power level.
• An advanced microwave signal generator can also produce AM, FM or PM signal
for testing purpose in addition to pulses.
• A sweep oscillator can produce frequency sweep during measurement.
• Such oscillators are widely used to test the frequency response of amplifiers,
attenuators, filters and other microwave circuitry.
High Power Measurement by Calorimetric Method:

• The calorimetric method for the measurement of high power is based on

the measurement of rise in temperature of a fluid, usually water, due to
absorption of microwave power.
• If T be the temperature rice in 0C, v be the rate of flow of calorimeter fluid
in cc/sec, Cp be the specific heat in cal/gm and d be the specific gravity
of the fluid in gm/cc then the average power in the microwave signal can
be calculated from P  4.187Cp Tvd Watts

• In direct method the rate of production of heat is measured by observing

the rise in temperature of the calorimetric fluid directly.
• In indirect method, the heat of the dissipating medium is transferred to
another medium for measurement.
• The calorimeter, mentioned above, is called circulating calorimeter as the
dissipating medium circulates through the setup.
• In static calorimeter a 50 ohm coaxial cable is filed up with a dielectric that has
high hysteresis loss. The dissipation of microwave power in the dielectric load
results in a rise in temperature of the load that is measured and used to calculate
average power carried by the microwave.
• If T be the temperature rice in 0C in t sec, m be the mass of the thermometric medium
in gms and Cp be the specific heat in cal/gm then the average power can be calculated
using the relation P  4.187CpmT t Watts

• The calorimeter method there is a time lag between the application of microwave
power and measurement of the parameter.
VSWR Measurement:

Measurement of low VSWR:

• Adjust the variable attenuator to 10 dB.

• Adjust the microwave source at the desired frequency.
• Tune the probe carriage stub for maximum reading in the VSWR scale.
• Adjust the modulation (1 kHz AM) for maximum reading on the VSWR meter in a
30 dB scale.
• Move the probe carriage along the slotted line to obtain a
peak at the VSWR meter.
• Adjust the meter gain control to get the maximum meter
reading as 1.0 or 0 dB.
• Move the probe carriage along the slotted line to obtain the
adjacent minima at the VSWR meter. The corresponding
VSWR meter reading at the normal SWR scale directly
indicates the VSWR provided . For use the expanded scale.
• For , select a 10 dB lower range and take the reading
corresponding to the minima position on the VSWR normal
scale, second from the top.
• For select a 20 dB lower range. Now take the reading corresponding to the minima
position on the top VSWR normal scale (i.e., 1 to 4) and multiply it by 10 to get
actual VSWR.
• For select a 30 dB lower range. Now take the reading corresponding to the minima
position on the second VSWR normal scale, second from the top (i.e., 3.2 to 10) and
multiply it by 10 to get actual VSWR.

• The following precautions should be taken in the above measurement:

• The probe thickness and penetration may cause distortion in the field and also may
cause reflection in the slotted line waveguide. To avoid this, probe penetration
should be kept small.
• The VSWR of the connector contributes a significant error in the measurement
when the load VSWR is very low . In such case very low VSWR connectors should
be used in order to reduce the measurement error.
• The 1 kHz modulating signal should be a perfect square wave, otherwise
frequency modulation will take place. For frequency modulated wave, there will
be standing waves for each frequency component which, in turn, will reduce the
sharpness of voltage minima. Therefore error will be introduced in the reading of
the position of actual voltage minima.
• Any harmonics or spurious signal from the source must be eliminated otherwise
error will be introduced in the measured result.
• Mechanical slope between the slot geometry and probe movement should be
removed, otherwise, different values of VSWR will be measured at different probe
position along the slot.
• The voltage maxima and voltage minima should be measured in the square law
region of the crystal detector.
• The slot structure itself launches a standing wave pattern in the line which
introduces error in the measurement.
Measurement of high VSWR:

• If the VSWR of the line is high enough, the difference between the measured readings
of voltage maxima and voltage minima is also large. This high value of voltage
maxima may put the detector diode outside of its square law region as the diode
current may exceed .
• Thus to measure high VSWR, double minima method is used.

If V x be the magnitude of the voltage at a

point x and V be the magnitude of the
min
voltage at minima then there ratio can be
expressed as

V  x   Vinc 1  2  cos    2x   

2

Vmin  Vinc 1   
Now let us assume that x1 andx 2 are the two measurement points around
the minima position such that V  x1   V  x 2   m Vmin

V  x1  1  2  cos    2x1   
2

Therefore m 
Vmin 1   
    1   1

m2  cos2 2  x1  x min   g 


sin 2  x1  xmin   g 

x  x2  x1  2  x1  xmin 
The equation reveals that
m2  1
  1 a VSWR can be
sin2  x  g 
measured by measuring
Further if we assume that measurements have the distance between the
taken at 3 dB point. i.e., m  2 then 3 dB point around a
g
  1  cos ec 2  x  g   voltage minima and
 g ? x x
guided wavelength.
• Position the probe at a voltage minima point. Note the position of the voltage
minima.
• Move the probe at any side of the voltage minima to find the position of
successive minima. Again note the position.
• Find the distance between the positions of two successive minima and
multiply it by two. This will give the guided wavelength.
• Position the probe at any suitable voltage minima point.
• Adjust the gain control of the meter so that a 3 dB reading is obtained.
• Now move the probe on one side of the minima until a 0 dB is indicated at the
meter. Note the first 0 dB position.
• Now move the probe on the other side of the minima until again a 0 dB is
indicated at the meter. Note the second 0 dB position.
• The distance between the above two readings will give the value of .

• Use equation   g to calculate the VSWR.
x
Phase Shift Measurement:
• Initially the 1 kHz modulated wave is divided in two channels at equal
amplitude and phase by using an H – plane T – junction.
• One of these two signals is then passed through the DUT while the other is
passed through a precision phase shifter.
• After that they are combined using another H – plane T – junction and is
displayed in a CRO.
• Since the phase shift produced by the phase shifter and the DUT will be
different, the signals in the two channels will not be added in phase in the
second T – junction.
• Now the phase shift produced by the precision attenuator is varied until it
becomes equal to the phase shift produced by the DUT and the two wave add
in phase in second T – junction.
• The reading of the precision attenuator now directly provides the phase shift
produced by the DUT.
 In this method we need an approximate idea about the electrical length of the DUT
since it in not possible to distinguish one wavelength and from any integral multiple of
the wavelength.

Impedance Measurement:
Slotted line Method:
The input impedance of a load can be calculated using
1  L e jL  1
ZL  Z0 jL where L  L  2dmin     2  g
1  L e  1

The magnitude of the reflection coefficient can be measured by measuring the VSWR
in the line whereas the phase may be measured by measuring the position of first
voltage minima from the load.  g between
can be calculated by measuring the distance
the position of two successive minima and multiplying it by 2.
Measurement of VSWR has already been described. Hence calculate
L .
Find the distance between the positions of two successive minima and
multiply it by two. This will give the guided wavelength. Hence calculate
phase constant.
Locate the position of the voltage minima nearest to the load (i.e., first
voltage minimum) by moving the probe along the slotted line. This will
give the value of dmin .
It may not be always possible to position the probe exactly at the first
minima due to the short guided wavelength.
In such case, to measure dmin , a short circuit load may be used.
In this method locate the position of a voltage minimum with load and
shift of the voltage minimum, towards load end, when the load is replaced
by a short circuit.
Alternatively, since the successive voltage minima are  g 2 apart
therefore
N g
dmin  d 
2
where “d” is the position of the minima nearest to the load that can be
 N g   g
located with the setup and “N” is an integer that makes  d   .
 2  2

Once dmin and phase constant is known, we can calculate L and

hence the unknown impedance, ZL .

It may be noted that instead of calculation by hand, Smith charts can

also be used.
Impedance measurement of reactive discontinuity:

If “jX” be the reactance of the discontinuity and Z 0 be the characteristic

impedance of the line then the equivalent load impedance can be
expressed as
jZ0 X ZL X2  jXZ0 X 2
XZ0
ZL  zL   2  x  jy where x  2 y
Z0  jX Z0 Z0  X2 Z0  X2 Z02  X2

Taking the ratio we get, x X2 Z02  X2 X

 2  X  Z0 x y
y Z0  X2 XZ0 Z0
Now using the experimental procedure, mentioned before, and Smith
chart, zL (and hence x and y) can be found. Now taking the ratio of x and
y and multiplying it by Z 0 the unknown reactance can be calculated.

Frequency Measurement:
Slotted line method:

The distance between the two successive minima is first obtained by

changing the probe location along a slotted line.
Next this distance is multiplied by a factor 2 to find the guided
wavelength.
Once the guided wavelength is found, the wavelength of the

1    g 2a 
2
microwave signal can be calculated using the relation   g
Wavemeter method:

A cavity Wavemeter is basically a cylindrical cavity resonator with

one of its ends is terminated in a sliding short circuit.
As the position of the short circuit is mechanically moved in or out,
the effective length of the cavity changes which, in turn, changes its
resonance frequency.
The most suitable mode of operation, for a cavity wavemeter, is
TE011 because of its higher Q and absence of axial current.

However TE011 is a higher order mode and hence it will be associated

with lower order modes.
Due to this reason a cavity wavemeter generally operates in the
dominant TM010 mode.
• Due to magnetic field coupling the experimental arrangement excites
the dominant mode inside the cavity.
• Now the position of the short circuit is varied slowly so that a
resonance takes place inside the cavity.
• The resonance point can be identified by noting a dip in the power
meter that is attached at the output side of the waveguide.
• In practice the depth of the short circuit, for which resonance occurs, is
calibrated in terms of the corresponding resonance frequency.
• Therefore once the resonance point has been identified, the
corresponding resonance frequency can be read directly from the
calibrated scale.
• The accuracy, provided by a cavity Wavemeter, lies is in the range 1% to
0.005% for available Q of 1000 to 50000, respectively.
• A block of absorbing material, such as polytron, is placed at the back of the
tuning short circuit to prevent oscillation at the top.
Measurement of Dielectric Constant:
Waveguide Method:

The waveguide method is used to measure the dielectric constant of a lossless or very
low loss solid dielectric material.
 Due to the termination, a standing wave is formed inside the
waveguide.
Let the first voltage minimum in the unfilled waveguide occurs at a
distance from the air – dielectric interface.
l0
Therefore the position of the first voltage minimum in the unfilled
waveguide is at a distance le  l0  from the short circuit termination.

The input impedance at the air – dielectric interface, looking towards the
short circuited termination, can be expressed as
Zin  jZe tan ele 
This input impedance behaves as an effective load impedance of the
unfilled waveguide. Therefore the input impedance at the first voltage
minima in the unfilled waveguide will be
Zin  jZ0 tan  0l0 
Zin,0 
Z0  Zin j tan  0l0 
Now since the input impedance at the position of voltage minima must be
zero, therefore we can write,

Zin  jZ0 tan 0l0   0

Zin  jZe tan ele 

l0 tan 0l0  tan ele 

Ze tan ele   Z0 tan 0l0  
le 0l0 ele
Z0  Zee 0

Now for dominant mode excitation 0  2  g0 where  g0 and 0 hence

can be measured by measuring the distance between two successive
minima in the unfilled waveguide. l0 can be measured using a slotted
line waveguide. Therefore we can write
This equations can be
tan ele 
  where  is a known value solved to find  r .
ele
2
2 2  
Now, e   r   0 
 ge 0  2a 
where “a” is the dimension of the waveguide broad wall
It may be noted that due to the transcendental equation, an infinite
number of solutions for  r exist.
To find the actual solution two different sample lengths are taken and
the corresponding solutions are found.
If r1, r 2 , r3 be the solutions for sample length le and r1 , r2 , r3
 be the
solutions for sample length le then the common term between them will be
the actual solution.

Cavity Perturbation Method:

The cavity perturbation methods are used to accurately determine the

dielectric constant of a material having a small loss tangent.
In this method a small volume of the test material in inserted at the
position of maximum E – field in a cavity resonator.
 Due to its small volume the field within the cavity may be assumed
undisturbed and hence the changes in the field can be neglected.
However the changes occurred in the resonance frequency and
dielectric loss cannot be neglected as they result in a change in the
cavity Q.
The above changes are measured to determine the dielectric constant
of the material.

If the unperturbed cavity has resonance frequency f0 , permittivity 0 ,

permeability 0 and the dielectric material has a permittivity   r  jr and
permeability 0 then for sufficiently small perturbation we can write,
1
  0    r  1  E0 dv  
2 2
 r E0 Vs
2 2
E0 dv and E0 dv
Vs Vc Q Vc

where Vs and Vc are the volume of the sample and the cavity respectively
and E0 is the field of the original cavity.
For small perturbation  can be approximated as 0 and the above equations
can be written as

 r  1 E0
2
Vs
 1


Vs
 r E0
2 2
and Vs E0 dv
0 2  E0 dv
2
Q Vs
Vc
Vc

where we have assumed E0 Vs constant throughout the sample and

1 1 1

Q Qc Qs
Qc is the Q of the unperturbed cavity and Q is the Q of the perturbed cavity.
s

In practice any type of cavity, either rectangular or circular, can be used

with suitable mode. However the following criteria should be satisfied
The cavity Q should be as high as possible so that high accuracy can be
achieved, especially for low loss materials.
The operating mode should be such that the test sample can be placed
at an uniform field Emax where H = 0.
The condition H = 0 is particularly important for magnetically lossy
materials otherwise complex permeability will shift the resonance
frequency. The RF losses due to the complex permeability will also
be added with the losses due to complex permeability causing error
in the measurement. Due to this TE103 mode of rectangular cavity and
TM010 mode of circular cavity are preferred.