RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FORCES OF ATTRACTION AND

STATES OF MATTER
States of matter
There are three states of matter, and most
substances exist in these states. The states
are:
• Solid
• Liquid
• Gas
Forces of attraction – intramolecular forces
Intermolecular forces may be defined as the weak forces between molecules.

Relationship:
Solid particles are closely packed together, thus their intermolecular forces are the strongest of
the three states of matter.
Liquids particles are more loosely packed together compared to solids, and so their
intermolecular forces are weaker or moderate.
Gaseous particles are very loose and thus have the weakest intermolecular forces.

(The closer the molecules, the greater the forces of attraction).

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER IN RELATION TO
STRENGTH DIFFERENCES IN FORCES OF ATTRACTION
The physical state of matter depends on the strength of forces of attraction in and
between particles. It also depends on the type of chemical bonding being displayed.
Solids have strong forces of attraction while liquids have moderate forces of attraction and
gases have weak forces of attraction.
Physical properties such as the melting point, boiling point and solubility depend on the
type of forces of attraction present within the compound.
 BONDING PHYSICAL STATE MELTING POINT / ELECTRICAL SOLUBILITY
BOILING POINT CONDUCTIVITY

Ionic Solid High Conductor in Soluble in polar

Molten or solvent
Aqueous State
Giant Covalent Solid High Non-conductor Insoluble
(strong) (Except Graphite)

Simple Molecular Solid, Liquid, Gas Low Non-conductor Usually soluble in

polar and non-
polar solvent
Metallic Solid (Except High Excellent Dissolves in other
Mercury) conductor metals to form
alloys
 EXPLANATION OF BONDS
1. Ionic Bonds
Ionic or electrovalent bond is a type of linkage formed from the electrostatic attraction
between oppositely charged ions in a chemical compound.
Such a bond forms when the valence electrons of one atom are transferred to another
atom. The atom that loses the electron(s) (metal) becomes a cation, while the one that
gains (non-metal) them becomes an anion.
(e.g.) NaCl
2. Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds are formed between two or more non-metals.

If two elements are very similar in their outer electron configurations, or if achieving a noble gas
configuration would produce a high ionic charge (e.g. C4+ ), atoms can produce stable compounds
without ionization.
(e.g.) Water
 Sigma and Pi Covalent Bonds
In covalent bonding, atomic orbitals may overlap to form bonds. When they overlap and
combine, molecular orbitals (Sigma and Pi) are formed.
Sigma molecular orbitals form sigma bonds and pi molecular orbitals form pi bonds.
o Sigma Bonds (Σ)
In sigma bonds, orbital overlap is always along the nuclei’s axis so that the bond is
centered.
This bond gives the maximum possible electron density and is therefore a strong bond.
Compounds with sigma bonds are stable.
There are three possible ways for sigma bonds to be formed:
o Pi Bonds (π)
A pi molecular orbital is formed by the sideways overlap of two parallel p orbitals that are
perpendicular to a sigma bond.
A pi bond’s electron density is distributed above and below the plane of the sigma bond,
thus a pi bond is weaker than a sigma bond and compounds with pi bonds are reactive.
(e.g.) C2H4
-Ethylene
 Co-ordinate or Dative Covalent Bonding
Co-ordinate bonding or dative bonding is a covalent bond whereby only one element
provides all the electrons for that bond to occur.
For dative bonding we need
• One atom having lone pair of electrons
• the other must have space in its orbital to acxept the electrons

(e.g.) NH4+ and NO3-

3. Metallic Bonds
Metallic bonds are formed between metals which arrange themselves in a lattice structure of
cations surrounded by a ‘sea’ of electrons.
The attraction between the free, moving electrons and the metal ions is known as
electrostatic force which holds the bonds together.
(e.g.) Aluminium
ELECTRONEGATIVITY: Metals have little to no
electronegativity as there are usually 1, 2 or 3
valence electrons, so they tend to lose them.
POLARITY: Metallic bonds are non-polar as electrons
are delocalized and constantly moving.
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION
Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction between molecules which cause liquids and solids to
form.
It is a weak electrostatic force of attraction that exists in an area of negative charge on one molecule and
an area of positive charge on a second molecule.
The origin of intermolecular forces varies depending on the structure and functional groups of the
molecules involved. They are considerably weaker than a covalent or ionic bond.
There are three types of intermolecular forces:
1.Van der Waals forces
2.Permanent dipole-dipole forces
3.Hydrogen bonding
The comparative strength of these intermolecular forces is generally in the order:
Hydrogen bonding > Permanent dipole - dipole > Van der Waals
1. Van der Waals Forces
Van der Waal’s forces are the weakest of all the intermolecular forces and it is not permanent.
All atoms and molecules have van der Waal’s forces.
How Van der Waal forces arise:
The electrons of a non-polar molecule or atom are constantly moving. On average the electron
cloud or the electron density is evenly distributed, however, since the electrons are in a state of
continuous movement, at a given point in time, the electron cloud may be more concentrated
on one side of the atom or molecule more than the other. This then results in the atom having
an instantaneous or temporary dipole moment, i.e. opposite charges separated by a small
distance.
This dipole can set up (induce) dipoles in the neighbouring atoms or molecules. As a result,
these dipoles attract each other.
These dipoles are always temporary because the electrons are always moving. Van der Waal’s
forces are sometimes referred to as induced dipole-induced dipole attractions.
Van der Waals forces increase with:
•Increasing number of electrons
in the molecule.
•Increasing number of contact
points between the molecules or
atoms- contact points are where
the molecules or atoms come
closer together.
2. Permanent Dipole –Dipole Forces
The forces between two molecules having permanent dipoles are called permanent
dipole- dipole forces. Permanent dipole-dipole attractions exist between polar
molecules. These are molecules in which the distribution of electrons between the
covalently bonded atoms is not even. This then means that one end of the molecule is
slightly negatively charged while the other end is slightly positively charged. This
then gives rise to a permanent dipole. The negatively charged pole of one polar
molecule is then attracted to the positive pole of a neighbouring polar molecule hence
forming a permanent dipole - dipole attraction.
3. Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding is a special form of permanent dipole boding. It is a permanent dipole
- dipole attraction between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative
atom (F, O or N) and an unshared electron pair on another electronegative atom.
For hydrogen bonding to occur between two molecules it requires:
•One molecule with a Hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an F, O or N atom. These are
the three most electronegative atoms.
•A second molecule having an F, O or N atom with an available lone pair of electrons.
When a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to a very electronegative atom, the bond is
highly polarized.
The positive charge of the Hydrogen atom is high enough for a bond to be formed with a
lone pair of electrons on the F, O or N atom of a neighbouring molecule.
This then results in the formation of a Hydrogen bond.
(e.g.) Hydrogen bonding between two ammonia molecules. (A hydrogen bond is
represented by a line of dots)