‘Power System Protection

– An overview’

- K.Muruganandam, B.E,MIET(UK).
Assistant Executive Engineer,
Protection & Communication-II,
TANTRANSCO, ERODE.
9445396922 ; aeepc2ed@tnebnet.org
About this lecture

 To incorporate participants with an overall

knowledge on the general protection practices
adopted in the power system.

 The protection of main components of the power

system viz. Generator , Transformer,
Transmission Line & Busbar are dealt in this
lecture.
Protection is required to act
for the following Hazards

Fault – In most cases involves

considerable growth of current and
heavy voltage drop.

Abnormal operating ( and or system)

condition - Deviation of voltage ,
current and frequency from the
permissible values.
 Need of the Protection
 To remove as speedy as possible any element
of the power system in which a fault has
developed to avoid from the following three
effects of fault.

 To lose synchronism of Generators/ Power

plants and fall out of step and splitting of
system.
 A risk of damage to the affected plant.
 A risk of damage to healthy plant.
 Qualities of protection

 Selective .
 Sensitive.
 Stable.
 Speed.
 Simple.
Elements of protection

 Protective relays .
 Current Transformers.
 Potential Transformers / CVTs.
 Circuit breaker.
 Tripping supply.
 Fuses, links & Terminals.
 Communication channels / pilot circuits.
 Zone of Protection

 No single
failure of
protection
should lead
the power
system in
jeopardy.
Overlapping Zone of protection.
 How much protection?

Simply, governed by

 Economic considerations.
 Depending on the size and value of the
equipment
 And it’s importance to the power system as a
whole.
Classification of protection
based on time of action

 Main Protection – Protection which is expected

to act first to clear a fault in its zone.

 Back-up protection - Protection which is

expected to act when the intended main
protection fails to clear a fault within particular
time.
 Fault calculations

 There exists a sudden change in the current & voltage

profile in the different parts of the interconnected power
system during the fault. Hence it is indispensable to
know

 Maximum Fault current

 Minimum Fault current
 Through Fault current
 Voltage at the relaying point

 For most of the general systems, theorems such as

Superposition position , Thevenin’s and other network
reduction proves to be suffice.
Classification of protection
based on selectivity

 Unit Protection – Protection which is expected

to act first for a fault in its zone and the limit of
zone is defined by the location of its actuating
component ( Current Transformer )

 Non-Unit protection - Protection which is

expected to act for a fault and its zone of
operation is not fixed and depends on other
power system factors.
 Vital components of
Power System

1. Generator.
2. Transformer.
3. Transmission Line.
4. Busbar.

* FACTS,HVDC & other components of power system are not included in this lecture , which may need a separate
session.
Generator Protection
 Generator Protection

Generator Faults – a broad classification

1. Stator Fault
a. Phase and or Earth Faults.
b. Inter-turn Faults.
2. Rotor Fault
a. Ground Fault
Effect of Abnormal operating
and or system condition on
Generator
 Loss of Excitation / Field.
 Un-cleared system faults-pole slipping
 Thermal Overload
 Overvoltage
 Unbalanced loading/ Single phasing
 Under and Over Frequency
 Over Excitation( Over Fluxing )
 Failure or Loss of prime mover (Motoring)
 Inadvertent energisation
Effect of Abnormal operating
and or system condition on
Generator ( contd.)

High Bearing Temperature.

Bearing Vibration.
Protective relays and its
connection to the plant
STATOR FAULTS
 Stator Phase and or Ground
Fault Protection
 87G with Toroidal ( ring) CT.
 Differential scheme
 Plain Differential
 Biased Differential
 High Impedance Differential

 95% Stator Ground Fault relay (59G)

 100% Stator Ground Fault relay-3rd Harmonic
detection (27TN)
 Distance Relay ( 21)
 Voltage Restrained over current relay(51V)
 Negative sequence current protection (46)
Stator Phase Faults
1. Differential
protection for small
generators using
Torodial CT ( Ring
CT)

 Simple, High-speed,
High sensitivity &
Economical for both
Phase & Earth Fault.
 Limitation is its ability
to pass two conductor
into the ring/window of
the CT
Differential Protection-
Logic
Differential Protection-
Logic
Differential Protection-
applied to Generator

 Simple (unbiased)
differential protection
responds for phase
faults and earth fault
with moderate
impedance scheme.
 Percentage (Biased)
Differential Protection.
 Differential
protection
responds for
phase faults
and earth fault
with moderate
impedance
scheme with
increased
security.
 Conventional Biased
Differential Protection
characteristics.

 Fixed slope
through-out the
range.
Numerical Biased Differential
Protection characteristics.

 Variable slope
for different
range of
multiples of
rated current.
Modern Numerical Biased
Differential Protection.
Some of the
advantages
 Diff. and bias
current
calculated
internally thro’
algorithm.
 CT ratio &
Vector match
done internally.
Modern Numerical Biased
Differential Protection.
 Galvanic separation.
 Built in Inrush current restraint.
 Very low burden imposed on CT & Hence
on CT performance requirement.
 Fault recorder.
Differential Protection
(High Impedance).
 High speed
of
Operation.
 Needs exact
matching of
CTs
involved.
 Stator Ground Fault
Protection
95% Stator Ground Fault relay (59G)

100% Stator Ground Fault relay-3rd

Harmonic detection (27TN)
Type of Generator Earthing
In Impedance
earthing, fault
current limited is
to

a) Rated current

b) 200-400 A
(Low Impedance
Earthing)

c) 10-20 A
(High Impedance
Earthing)
Resonant / Peterson coil Earthing
95% Stator Ground Fault relay
(59G)
 A transformer loaded with a
resistance in secondary in
parallel with a voltage relay.
 The value of the resister is
chosen to (a) limit the
maximum value of ground
fault current to around 10A, or
less, a safe value for the core
(b) prevent high transient over
voltages during an arcing
earth fault.
 The stator circuit equivalent
resistance should not exceed
the three phase summated
capacitive impedance.
100% Stator Ground Fault relay
(59G)
 Coded signal is circulated at
sub harmonic frequency
(usually one fourth of rated
frequency, i.e. 12.5 HZ)
through an injection
transformer provided in series
with the grounding transformer
in the neutral grounding circuit.
 The coded signal current flows
only in the capacitance of the
generator circuit.
 During an earth fault, the
capacitance is by-passed and
the monitoring current rises.
The relay response criteria is
based on the increased current
value.
 Back-up Protection

 Distance Relay ( 21)

 Voltage Restrained over current relay(51V)
 Negative sequence current protection (46)
Distance (Impedance) Relay
(21)
Distance relay
applied to
Line.

Operation
analogy
Distance (Impedance) Relay
(characteristics widely used)

Offset Mho Quadrilateral

characteristics characteristics
Distance (Impedance) Relay
(Appreciation of advancement in technology)

Modern Numerical type

Earlier static type
relay. (Courtesy Alstom)
relay (Courtesy Alstom)
Simple 3 O/C + 1 E/F (51)

3 O/C + 1 E/F
connection Time / current Characteristics
of IDMT relay
 Voltage restrained
overcurrent relay (51V)
Function of voltage is to
prevent moderate
overcurrent operation until
the generator voltage is
reduced by a fault.
The synchronous reactance
Xd (sat) governing load is
lower than that for faults
Xd(unsat). So as the three
phase fault current and the
maximum load current.
 Negative sequence
current protection (46)

 The negative sequence components (

flux) rotate in the opposite direction and
thus it cuts the rotor twice and produce
double frequency and the resultant eddy
current will be very large and cause
severe heating and melting of wedges
causing severe damage.
 Negative sequence
current protection (46)
 The negative
sequence current
withstand factor ‘K’
is the product of I22
and Time ‘t’.

 Thus machine to be
operated at I22 t <
K.

Typical NPS relay characteristics

Stator Inter-turn Faults by
Split phase Protection (87S)
 Inter turn faults in
stator windings are
covered by Split
phase protection
as Differential
protection will not
respond to inter
turn faults, as
there will not be
difference in
currents at the
ends of a winding
with shortened
Generator Split phase –Double primary turns.
( Current shown in healthy condition)
Rotor Faults
 Rotor with partially
shorted turns
 Flux is concentrated on
one pole and widely
dispersed over the other
and intervening
surfaces.
 Results in unbalanced
force and consequent
violent vibration and
damage to the Bearing
and may hit rotor.

Flux distribution on rotor with

partially shorted winding
 Rotor with partially
shorted turns

Potentiometer method.

Injection Method.
Potentiometer method
 A High resistance
connected across the
rotor circuit the centre
point of which is
connected to earth
through the coil of
sensitive relay. The
blind spot at the
midpoint shall be
arranged by tap switch
which shifts the
connection from the
centre point to little on
one side.
Injection Method

 A small power pack

connected to the
positive of the of the
field circuit in series
with which is
connected the fault
detecting relay and a
current limiting
resistance.
Abnormal operating
and or system
condition
Loss of Excitation / Field
Failure.
 Results in
Generator losing
synchronism and
running above
synchronous
speed .Operate as
Induction
generator with
heavy drawal of
exciting reactive
power exceeding
generator rating
and overloading
stator.
Loss of Excitation / Field
Failure.
 Protection by
Distance relay with
setting preferably
inside the
minimum
excitation limit
setting and outside
the generator
capability and
stability curves.
Pole slip – Un-cleared system
faults
 When there is an Pole slip
condition in the system, the
generators are allowed to
run. But in case of very
large machines, the
electrical center may enter
the generator-transformer.
Asynchronous operating
condition of generator can
seriously endanger it and
the auxiliary services.Typical
time diagram of the
impedance vector in the R-X
diagram when the machine
falls out of step. The
generator is tripped when
the electrical center of the
oscillation lies within the
generator-transformer block.
Otherwise, it is left
connected to grid to settle
down
Pole slip – Un-cleared
system faults

 Distance relay with

lenticular
characteristics
used for pole slip
protection
Thermal Overload (49)
 Major cause is failure of cooling system.
 Core faults may also be a reason though negligibly
rare.
 The practice is to embed resistance temperature
detectors (RTD) in the slots at certain intervals to cover
all variations. The elements are usually connected to
multiway selector switch and any one RTD can be
selected and connected to measuring unit.
 Supplementary temperature devices may monitor the
cooling system and such equipment will give the
earliest alarm in the event of cooling system failure.
 Over voltage (59N)
 A major cause of overvoltage is the sudden loss of
load. Power equipment involving iron (rotating
generators, transformers, and such) operate close to
the knee of their saturation curves. Thus, small
overvoltage result in large increases in exciting current
and cause major damage.
 Transient over voltage are taken care of by capacitor
cum surge arrester combination connected to the
generator terminals.
 Definite time voltage relay connected to the generator
VT terminals offer protection. A setting of 120% voltage
with a time delay of the order of 2 to 3 seconds may be
adopted. At 130% voltage, the generator is allowed to
trip instantaneously.
 Unbalanced loading/
Single phasing (46)
 Unbalanced loading/ Single phasing will be taken care
by Negative sequence current protection we’ve
discussed earlier.
Under and Over Frequency

 Generally hydro stations as the water turbines can face

under frequency operation without any problem.

 Steam turbines need under frequency protection as this

condition sets up blade vibrations. The consequent
fatigue can have an adverse impact on the life of the
turbine itself.
Under and Over Frequency
 The under frequency setting is coordinated with the
system load shedding and islanding frequencies in
force. When system frequency dips, automatic load
sheddings are initiated. If frequency declines further,
the system is split into islands. Generator under
frequency relay is set a step below the islanding stage
frequency.

 Over-frequency is usually the result of a sudden loss of

load. Overfrequency can also occur due to failure of
generator controls or as a result of islanding. Over-
frequency operation due to excess power in an island
will not cause overheating unless rated power and
about 105% voltage are exceeded.
 Over Excitation ( Over
Fluxing ) V/f protection (24)
 Generators as well as transformers must not be subject
to overvoltage except for short or transient excursions.
With normal operation near the knee of the iron
saturation curve, small overvoltages result in significant
exciting currents in transformers, and excessive flux
densities and abnormal flux patterns in generators.
These can cause severe and extensive damage.

 The field excitation current, at rated output, is greater

than that required at no-load, so it is important to
reduce the excitation correspondingly as load is
reduced.
 Over Excitation (Over
Fluxing) V/f protection (24)
 A particularly dangerous period is during the time when
the generator is disconnected from the system and the
speed is changed. The generator voltage is proportional
to frequency and the magnetic flux, so overvoltage
protection should have a constant pickup as a function
of the ratio of voltage to frequency, a volts/hertz (24)
type.
 Protection supplementary to that in the generat or
control s is suggested by using two-leve l vo lts=hert z
units. One setting should be about 110% rated voltage
to the alarm with a subsequent trip within approximately
1 min, the other set at near 120% rated voltage to trip
on the order of 6 sec.
Failure or Loss of prime
mover (Motoring)
 This can be taken care by reverse power flow/ low
forward power rely (32)
 If the prime -mover supply is removed while the
generator is connected to the power system and the
field excited, the power system will drive the unit as
asynchronous motor. For the hydro units, this can
cause cavitations of the blades of the turbine .
 The power directional relay is connected to operate
when real power flows into the generator. Typical relay
sensitivities with microprocessor relays are as low as 1
mA, which may be required when a generator can
operate with partial prime-mover input. The operating
time can be approximately 2 sec.
Inadvertent energisation
 This can be taken care by Directional overcurrent relay
(67) reverse power flow/ low forward power rely (32)
 Large generators may be protected against
unintentional energization during stand still condition.
Its operation will trip the generator-transformer breaker.
 This condition represents high current inrush . High
current setting with 0.5 to 2.0 p.u. with time setting to
0.25 sec.
High Bearing Temperature(38)

 This can be taken care by Thermocouples , RTD placed

inside the bearing and fed to the monitoring system to
be alarmed/ tripped if the preset limit is violated.
Bearing Vibration. (39)
 Seismic mass and piezoelectric method.
Transformer
Protection
Courtesy : SIEMENS
 Transformer Main
Protections ( Electrical)
 Differential protection ( 87T)
 REF protection (87G)
 Distance protection ( 21P/21G)
 Phase ( Directional / Non-directional) over
current - Inst. / Timed / (67P/50/51 P)
 Earth Fault ( Directional /Non-Directional ) - Inst.
/ Timed . ( 67N/50/51N)
 V/f ( over fluxing ) protection(24)
Modern Numerical Biased
Differential Protection.
 Diff. and bias
current
calculated
internally thro’
algorithm.
 CT ratio &
Vector match
done internally.
 Inrush restraint
Differential ( Overall)
protection applied to
Auto transformer
 High speed
operation
 Unaffected to
transformer
taps.
 Immune to
inrush.

* Not adopted in TANTRANSCO.

 REF Protection
( High Impedance)
 REF protection
offers superior
protection
coverage when
compared to
earth fault
protection. This
one is Unit
protection .
 Distance Protection

 Distance ( Impedance ) protection is

applied to transformers with primary zone
setting covering from 80 to 90 % of the
winding
 Delayed zone of protection can be set to
cover 100 % of winding and coordinated
with upstream /down stream protection.
 Phase and Earth fault
protection

3 O/C + 1 E/F
connection Time / current graph of
IDMT relay
 Over Excitation (Over
Fluxing) V/f protection (24)
 Over fluxing may drive transformer core towards
saturation / increased Magnetizing current and leads
to rapid temperature rise resulting in core bolt insulation
failure and coil insulation if unattended.
 Transformer Protections
(Mechanical / Thermal / Gas operated)

 Buchholz – Alarm, Trip

 OLTC surge relay - Trip

 Pressure relief valve - Trip

 Winding Temperature – Alarm, Trip

 Oil Temperature – Alarm , Trip

 Transformer Healthiness
Monitoring

 Online Dissolved Gas Analysis

 Tan- Delta (DDF)– Winding / Bushings

 Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA)

 Transmission
Line Protection
 Line Feeder Protections

 Distance protection ( 21)

 Longitudinal Differential protection ( 87L)

 Phase ( Directional / Non-directional) over

current –IDMT . (67P/51 P)

 Earth Fault ( Directional /Non-Directional ) -

IDMT ( 67N/51N)
Distance Protection
Distance (Impedance) Relay
(characteristics widely used)

Offset Mho Quadrilateral

characteristics characteristics
Distance Protection
schemes
 Permissive under
reach trip transfer
scheme. ( PUTT)
Distance Protection
schemes
 Permissive over
reaching trip transfer
scheme. ( POTT)
Distance Protection
schemes
 Over-reaching
Blocking scheme
Line Differential
Protection
 Phase over current &
Earth fault protection

 Over current & Earth fault protection

were already discussed in earlier slides.
The same holds good for feeder
protection.
BUSBAR PROTECTION
Type of BUSBAR Protection

 High Impedance differential Type.

 Low Impedance biased differential
Type.
BUSBAR Protection applied
for various configurations.

1. SINGLE BUS BAR

87

Fig. (1)
BUSBAR Protection applied
for various configurations.

2. DOUBLE BUS BAR WITH COUPLER

1

87 - 1 87 - 2 Fig. (2)
BUSBAR Protection applied
for various configurations.
3. BREAKER AND A HALF

87 - 1

87 - 2

Fig. (3)
BUSBAR Protection applied
for various configurations.
Components of High Impedance
BusBar Protection

1. Voltage operated / Current operated relay

(Main & check).
2. Stablising Resistor.
3. Shunt Resistor.
4. Non-Linear resistor.
5. Switching relay.
6. Blocking relay / Bus wire supervision relay.
Typical High Impedance scheme
Numerical Busbar protection
scheme  No complicated /
lengthy copper.

 No physical CT
circuit switching.

 Built-in BF ( LBB)
protection.

 Easy
management.

 Availability
monitored
continuously.
Courtesy : SIEMENS
.

THANKS.