Symmetrical Components

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Introduction to Symmetrical Components and their use in STATCOM

Applications
Technical Report · March 2005

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2384.3043
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Introduction to Symmetrical Components and
their use in STATCOM Applications1
Robert Betz and Terry Summers
ResTech Pty Ltd

School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
University of Newcastle, Australia
1
First created: March 14, 2005
Revised on 2014-04-14 15:10:40 +1000 (Mon, 14 Apr 2014) by R.E. Betz
SVN Version: 537
ii
Preface
The purpose of this document is to report on the use of symmetrical components

as applied to STATCOM applications. In general the supply will contain some
degree of imbalance, and symmetrical components are the standard technique
to model this. If a STATCOM is being used to control reactive power, it will be
using samples of the supply as an input into its control strategies. Therefore it
would appear that taking into consideration the imbalance in the supply would
be essential for the STATCOM to work correctly.
The other issue to be addressed in this report is the idea of controlling
the negative sequence component to eliminate it – i.e. the STATCOM will
re-balance the supply. The technical feasibility of achieving this will be investi-
gated, especially using the H-bridge cascade based STATCOM.
iv
Contents
1 Symmetrical Components 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Why is Balance Important in Power Systems? . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Symmetrical Component Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Power Under Asymmetric Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Techniques for Extracting the Symmetrical Components . . . . . 11
2 Theory of Power Factor Control and Phase Balancing 13

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Symmetry Compensation Using Passive Circuits . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Open Circuit Phase Imbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 General Passive Imbalance Compensation . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.3 Wye Network Passive Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 Implementation 25
3.1 Investigation of Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 The Real Power Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Symmetry Compensation Using Active Components . . . . . . . 27
3.2.1 Delta Connected Active Symmetry Compensation . . . . 27
3.2.2 Wye Connected Active Symmetry Compensation . . . . . 34
3.3 Phase Power Balancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.1 Phase Power Balancing using Zero Sequence Components 40
3.3.1.1 The Y Connected Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3.1.2 The ∆ connected case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Control Integration Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.1 Power System Topology Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 H-bridge Converter Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5.1 Delta Connection Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.5.2 Wye Connected Converter Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 Unbalanced Voltage Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.6.1 Relevant Paper Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.6.1.1 “Compensation of Distribution System Voltage
Sag by DVR and D-STATCOM” – M.H. Haque . 49
3.6.1.2 “STATCOM Controls for Operation with Unbal-
anced Voltages” – Hochgraf and Lasseter . . . . 55
3.6.2 Control Strategy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6.2.1 Phase Power Balance with Positive and Negative
Sequence Currents and Voltages . . . . . . . . . 58
vi CONTENTS
3.6.2.2 Unbalanced Source Voltage, Balanced Load . . . 66

3.6.2.3 Unbalanced Source Voltage, Unbalanced Load . 68
4 Simulation Studies 71
4.1 Wye Connected Current Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2 Delta Connected Current Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3 Wye Connected Current Sources and Voltage Source . . . . . . . 81
4.4 Unbalanced Source Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4.1 Delta Connected STATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4.1.1 Balanced Load Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
A STATCOM Delta Connection Relationships 93

A.1 Space Vector – Time Domain Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
A.2 Star-Delta Current Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
A.3 Star-Delta Voltage Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
A.3.1 Delta-Star Voltage Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
A.4 Standard Star-Delta, Delta-Star Transformations . . . . . . . . . 101
B Current and Voltage Measurement Instrumentation 103
C Software Listings 107

C.1 Symmetrical Components Evaluation using MAST . . . . . . . . 107
C.2 MAST Delta Current Reference Generator using RMS Values . . 111
C.3 Various SciLab Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
C.3.1 Delta Real Power Components SciLab Script . . . . . . . 114
C.3.2 Passive Balancing Circuit SciLab Scripts . . . . . . . . . . 116
C.3.3 Calculation of the ~I0 Zero Sequence Current in Delta
Compensator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
C.3.4 Calculation of Zero Sequence Voltage V ~ 0 for Wye STAT-
COM with Voltage Unbalance - Matlab Script . . . . . . 124
Bibliography 131
List of Figures
1.1 Three sets of balanced phasors which are the symmetrical com-
ponents for three phase unbalanced phasors. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Operations on the “a” operator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Development of unity power factor network. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2 Balancing an open circuited phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Balanced circuit when a phase is open circuited. . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Balancing of arbitrary load admittances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Susceptances required in order to balance an unbalanced load. . . 22
3.1 Delta connected controlled current sources for active symmetry

compensation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Wye connected active compensator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Vector definitions used in the derivation of the zero sequence
voltage for wye connected STATCOMs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Phasor diagram of balancing in a wye connected STATCOM with
zero sequence voltage injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Normalised injected zero sequence current versus the negative
sequence current phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6 Injected zero sequence current phase angle versus negative se-
quence current phase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.7 Delta current source current amplitudes with zero sequence cur-
rent injection versus negative sequence current phase. . . . . . . 47
3.8 Single line connection diagram for a generic STATCOM. . . . . . 50
3.9 Vector diagram for the currents and voltages of an inductive
transmission line without compensation currents. . . . . . . . . . 55
3.10 Vector diagram for the currents and voltages of an inductive
transmission line with a voltage dip and compensation currents. . 56
3.11 Single line diagram of the STATCOM, source and load connec-
tions that is suitable for the negative sequence currents. . . . . . 56
3.12 STATCOM connection to an unbalanced source voltage. . . . . . 59
3.13 Phasor diagram of unbalance voltage example. . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.14 Single line diagram of conceptual re-balancing of unbalanced volt-
ages when there is a balanced load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.1 Schematic of the Saberr simulation used for the Wye connected
current sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2 Wye connected current sources in Saberr simulation. . . . . . . . 73
viii LIST OF FIGURES
4.3 Negative sequence currents on the load and source sides of the
compensator connection point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.4 Positive sequence current on the load and source sides of the
compensator connection point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.5 Phase current on the load and source side of the wye connected
compensator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.6 Power in Wye connected current sources with no zero sequence
voltage injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.7 Saberr simulation for Delta connected current sources with zero
sequence current injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.8 Delta connected current sources used in Saberr simulation. . . . 78
4.9 Source side line currents for the Delta connected current sources. 79
4.10 Negative sequence currents on the source side with Delta com-
pensator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.11 Currents in the individual current sources for a Delta connected
compensator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.12 Zero sequence current injected into the Delta compensator. . . . 80
4.13 Current source powers in Delta compensator with zero sequence
current applied at 0.5 seconds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.14 Saberr schematic of wye connected compensator with zero se-
quence voltage injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.15 Close-up of compensator showing voltage source for zero sequence
voltage injection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.16 Voltage source reference generator for zero sequence voltage in-
jection for a wye connected compensator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.17 Negative sequence currents with a zero sequence voltage injection
wye connected compensator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.18 Voltages across the compensator sources and star point for a zero
sequence voltage injection wye connected compensator. . . . . . . 85
4.19 Powers in the sources for a zero sequence voltage injection wye
connected compensator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.20 Negative sequence currents for wye connected compensator with
zero sequence injection and general unbalanced admittances. . . 86
4.21 Voltages for a wye connected compensator with zero sequence
voltage injection and general unbalanced load. . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.22 Powers for a wye connected compensator with zero sequence volt-
age injection and a general load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.23 Simulation of a Delta connected current source based STATCOM
with 20% dip in phase ‘a’, a balanced resistive load, negative
sequence injection from derived from the load current to balance
the currents, and I0 injection for power balance. . . . . . . . . . 88
4.24 Single line diagram of conceptual re-balancing of unbalanced volt-
ages when there is a balanced load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.25 From the top plot: load currents, negative sequence load current,
positive and negative sequence voltages, STATCOM compensator
currents with a balanced resistive load and a 20% different voltage
in phase ‘a’ (14.3% unbalance). STATCOM re-balancing occurs
from 0.7 seconds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
LIST OF FIGURES ix
4.26 Close-up of Figure 4.25 From the top plot: load currents, negative
sequence load current, positive and negative sequence voltages,
STATCOM compensator currents with a balanced resistive load
and a 20% different voltage in phase ‘a’ (14.3% unbalance). . . . 91
4.27 Total three phase power and the individual current source powers
under the conditions of figures 4.25 and 4.26. . . . . . . . . . . . 92
A.1 Delta connection current and voltage conventions. . . . . . . . . 94

A.2 Relationship between line and phase space vectors for a delta
connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
A.3 Conventions used for voltages in Star and Delta load. . . . . . . . 99
B.1 The Karimi-Ghartemani Phase Locked Loop for estimation of

phasor quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
B.2 Performance of the Karimi-Ghartemani Phase Locked Loop with
a square wave input. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
x LIST OF FIGURES
List of Tables
1.1 Effects of unbalance on temperature, losses, efficiency and life

time of an induction machine at rated load [1]. . . . . . . . . . . 2
xii LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 1
Symmetrical Components
1.1 Introduction
Symmetrical components were developed in 1918 by C.L. Fortescue [2]. The
technique allows any unbalanced polyphase system to be decomposed into a
series of balanced polyphase systems, thereby making the analysis of unbalanced
systems a simple extension of that of balanced systems.
1.1.1 Why is Balance Important in Power Systems?

Before presenting basic symmetrical component theory, it is timely to review
why one needs to consider unbalance in power systems, and what may cause
the unbalance.
Unbalanced voltage in a power system can result from a number of causes:
1. Lack of symmetry in transmission line impedances.
2. Large single phase loads, such as arc furnaces and welders.
3. Faulty power factor correction capacitor banks.
4. Open delta or wye transformers.
5. A fuse blows in a single phase resulting in “single phasing”.
6. A number of single phase loads in a three phase system, which over time
has become unbalanced as loads have been incrementally added.
Unbalance has a particularly bad effect in three phase equipment such as electri-
cal machines. These effects have been documented in a number of places [1, 3],
and have also been included in standards for electrical machines (e.g. National
Electrical Machines Association (NEMA) standards in the USA). The effect is
so dramatic on machines, that NEMA specify that the voltage unbalance should
be less than 1%, where the unbalance is calculated by:
max deviation from average voltage
Voltage unbalance % = × 100 (1.1)
Average voltage
where the average voltage is the average rms voltage taken over the three phases.
2 Symmetrical Components
Remark 1.1 The Europeans use a superior definition for unbalance based on
the relationship between positive and negative sequence components in the wave-
forms. This takes out the strange issue of using the average voltage as the basis
of the measurement. n
To demonstrate the effects of unbalance on the lifetime of a three phase

electrical machine operating consider Table 1.1 taken from [1].
Remark 1.2 Note that the lifetime reduction for even 2% unbalance is dra-
matic. A 2% unbalance would not be unusual in practice. NEMA recommends
that supply unbalance be below 1%, but in reality very few supply situations would
satisfy this requirement. n
Remark 1.3 A rule-of-thumb for voltage unbalance and the resultant percent-
age temperature rise above the rated temperature is:
%temperature increase = (%voltage unbalance)2 × 2 (1.2)
Therefore a 3% voltage unbalance will result in the winding temperature rising

by:
32 × 2 = 18% (1.3)
n
% voltage Winding I2 R losses - Efficiency Expected

unbalance temp (◦ C) % of total reduction winding
losses life (yrs)
0 120 30% none 20
1 130 33% Up to 0.5% 10
2 140 35% 1→2% 5
3 150 38% 2 → 3% 2.5
4 160 40% 3 → 4% 1.25
5 180 45% ≥ 5% <1
Table 1.1: Effects of unbalance on temperature, losses, efficiency and life time
of an induction machine at rated load [1].
Clearly the decreased motor life indicated in Table 1.1 is a significant cost
of voltage unbalance. In addition to this there is a loss of efficiency in the
machines, and therefore an increased energy loss. For example, if one has 3%
unbalance in the voltages feeding a plant full of electrical machines, then the
plants energy bill will be approximately 2 to 3% higher due to this. Unbalance
in voltages could, for example, completely swamp the benefits of buying high
efficiency electrical machines.
Remark 1.4 The main reason that minor unbalance results in significant loses
in the machine is due to the very low impedance of the machine to the negative
sequence. In effect the machine is running at a very large slip with respect to
the negative sequence, and hence its impedance is very low. n
1.2 Symmetrical Component Basics 3
In addition to the loss of efficiency, voltage unbalance can also result in

loss of production, or alternatively having to run machines longer to achieve
production targets. For example, on common use of induction machines is for
pumps. If there is a 3% voltage unbalance, this corresponds to a doubling of
the slip of the machine, and a consequent drop in shaft speed. Therefore the
machine will not pump the same amount of product in a given time.
Voltage unbalance is usually produced by unbalanced currents flowing through
the line impedances. In order to achieve a significant unbalanced voltage one
requires that relatively large line impedance(i.e. a relatively long line or weak
supply), and a large imbalance in the phase currents. If the line impedances are
small, significant differences in the line currents can be tolerated without any
substantial voltage unbalance occurring.
Remark 1.5 Ascertaining the occurrence frequency of significant voltage unbal-

ance in industrial practice has not be easy. Clearly if there is significant voltage
unbalance in systems that are predominantly feeding induction machines then
there is a problem worth solving. The question is; “does voltage unbalance oc-
cur frequently enough to build the capability to cancel unbalance into a H-bridge
STATCOM?”. n
The remainder of this Chapter will concentrate developing some background

theory relevant to power factor and symmetry control in power system applica-
tions.
1.2 Symmetrical Component Basics

The following discussion is with reference to Figure 1.1. This figure shows three
sets of phase vectors. The positive sequence is defined by a set of phase or line
voltages as follows:
vap (t) = Vp cos(ω t) (1.4)

2π
vbp (t) = Vp cos(ω t − ) (1.5)
3
4π
vcp (t) = Vp cos(ω t − ) (1.6)
3
The negative sequence is defined as follows:
van (t) = Vn cos(ω t + θn ) (1.7)

4π
vbn (t) = Vn cos(ω t + θn − ) (1.8)
3
2π
vcn (t) = Vn cos(ω t + θn − ) (1.9)
3
and the zero sequence is defined as:
va0 (t) = V0 cos(ω t + θ0 ) (1.10)

vb0 (t) = V0 cos(ω t + θ0 ) (1.11)
vc0 (t) = V0 cos(ω t + θ0 ) (1.12)
r
Vcp
r r r
Vbn Van Vcr0
Vbr0
Va 0
qn r
Vap
q0
r
Vbp
r
Vcn
Negative sequence components Positive sequence components Zero sequence components
Figure 1.1: Three sets of balanced phasors which are the symmetrical compo-
nents for three phase unbalanced phasors.
The time domain expressions can be expressed as traditional phasors as

follows [4]. Firstly the positive sequence phasors:
~ ap = V̂p ∠0 = V̂p ej0

V (1.13)

~ 2π 2π
Vbp = V̂p ∠ − = V̂p e−j 3 (1.14)
3

~ 4π 4π
Vcp = V̂p ∠ − = V̂p e−j 3 (1.15)
3
the negative sequence phasors:
~ an = V̂n ∠θn = V̂n ejθn

V (1.16)

~ 4π 4π
Vbn = V̂n ∠ θn − = V̂n e(θn −j 3 ) (1.17)
3

~ 2π 2π
Vcn = V̂n ∠ θn − = V̂n e(θn −j 3 ) (1.18)
3
and finally the zero sequence phasors:
~ a0 = V̂0 ∠θ0 = V̂n ejθ0

V (1.19)
~ b0 = V̂0 ∠θ0 = V̂n ejθ0
V (1.20)
~ c0 = V̂0 ∠θ0 = V̂n ejθ0
V (1.21)
Consider a set of polyphase phasors, which are arbitrary in nature (i.e. may
be a balanced set of phasors, or may be unbalanced in various ways). These
phasors are written as follows:
~ a = V̂a ∠θa = V̂a ejθa

V (1.22)
~ b = V̂b ∠θb = V̂b ejθb
V (1.23)
~ c = V̂c ∠θc = V̂c ejθc
V (1.24)
The notation X̂y in the phasor expressions denotes that this is an rms value.
Symmetrical component theory says that the phasors in equations (1.22),
(1.23) and (1.24) can be written as:
~a=V
V ~ ap + V
~ an + V
~ a0 (1.25)
~b=V
V ~ bp + V
~ bn + V
~ b0 (1.26)
~c=V
V ~ cp + V
~ cn + V
~ c0 (1.27)
Let us define the following phasor operators:

2π 2π
a = 1∠ = 1ej 3 (1.28)
3
π π
j = 1∠ = 1ej 2 (1.29)
2
Operations on the “a” vector are shown in Figure 1.2.
a -a 2
-a 3 (-1) a 3 (1)
a2 -a
Figure 1.2: Operations on the “a” operator.
Using the operator defined in (1.28) one can write the voltages of equa-
tions (1.13)– (1.21) as follows:
~ bp = a2 V
V ~ ap (1.30)
~ cp = aV
V ~ ap (1.31)
~ bn = aV
V ~ an (1.32)
~ cn = a Van
V 2~
(1.33)
~ b0 = V
V ~ a0 (1.34)
~ c0 = V
V ~ a0 (1.35)
Substituting (1.31)– (1.35) into (1.25)– (1.27) we can write the following:
~a=V
V ~ ap + V~ an + V~ a0 (1.36)
~b=V
V ~ bp + V~ bn + V~ b0 (1.37)
~ ap + aV
= a2 V ~ an + V~ a0 (1.38)
~c=V
V ~ cp + V
~ cn + V~ c0 (1.39)
~ ap + a2 V
= aV ~ an + V ~ a0 (1.40)
The expressions can be expressed more succinctly in matrix form:
~   ~ 
Va 1 1 1 Va0
~ b  = 1 a2 a  V
V ~ ap  (1.41)
~ 2 ~ an
Vc 1 a a V
Denoting:  
1 1 1
A= 1
 a2 a (1.42)
1 a a2
we can show that:
 
1 1 1
1
A−1 = 1 a a2  (1.43)
3
1 a2 a
Using (1.43) we can write the symmetrical components in terms of the line
or phase voltages as follows:
~   ~ 
Va0 1 1 1 Va
1
~ ap  = 1 a a2  V ~ b
V (1.44)
~ 3 2 ~c
Van 1 a a V
Using (1.30)– (1.35) in conjunction with (1.44) one can construct all the
symmetrical component sequences from the line or phase waveforms. After
some manipulation one can obtain the following expressions for the positive,
negative and zero sequences.
Firstly the positive sequence can be expressed as:
~  ~ 
1 a a2

Vap Va
1
~ bp  = a2 1 a  V ~ b
V (1.45)
~ cp 3 2 ~c
V a a 1 V
The negative sequence can be expressed as:
~  ~ 
1 a2 a

Van Va
V~ bn  = 1  a 1 a2  V ~ b (1.46)
~ 3 2 ~c
Vcn a a 1 V
The zero sequence can be expressed as:
~   ~ 
Va0 1 1 1 Va
1
~ b0  = 1 1 ~ b
V 1  V (1.47)
~ c0 3 ~c
V 1 1 1 V
Remark 1.6 The equations for the symmetrical components are all expressed
in phasor terminology. In a practical system one has time domain waveforms.
Therefore techniques need to be developed to extract phasor information from
these waveforms, even when there is noise and harmonics present in the mea-
surements of the system quantities. This issue has been the subject of much
research in the power systems community. One technique for detecting the pha-
sors is presented in [5]. Details of the implementation of this technique in the
simulation studies associated with this report appear in Appendix B. n
1.2.1 Power Under Asymmetric Operation

The space vectors for the phase voltage and currents for a star connected load
are defined as [6]:
2
v= (va + avb + a2 vc ) (1.48)
3
2
i = (ia + aib + a2 ic ) (1.49)
3
and the zero sequence components are:
1
v0 = (va + vb + vc ) (1.50)
3
1
i0 = (ia + ib + ic ) (1.51)
3
2π
where a , ej 3 in the spatial domain, as compared to the temporal domain as
defined in the phasors of (1.28).
The space vector expression for the three phase power is [6]:
3 3
p= <{vi∗ } + 3v0 i0 = <{v ∗ i} + 3v0 i0 (1.52)
2 2
Remark 1.7 Note that the power for the zero sequence is multiplied by 3 be-
cause the transformation used for the space vectors is power variant – i.e the
power in each phase is equal to that in ‘a’ phase of the three phase system.
Therefore the total power in the zero sequence has to be multiplied by three to
get the total power. n
If we consider the situation where we have positive and negative sequence
sinusoidal voltages and currents of the form:
√ √
va (t) = 2V̂p cos(ωt + α1 ) + 2V̂n cos(ωt + α2 ) (1.53)
√ 2π √ 2π
vb (t) = 2V̂p cos(ωt + α1 − ) + 2V̂n cos(ωt + α2 + ) (1.54)
3 3
√ 2π √ 2π
vc (t) = 2V̂p cos(ωt + α1 + ) + 2V̂n cos(ωt + α2 − ) (1.55)
3 3
and
√ √
ia (t) = 2Iˆp cos(ωt + α1 + φ1 ) + 2Iˆn cos(ωt + α2 + φ2 ) (1.56)
√ 2π √ 2π
ib (t) = 2Iˆp cos(ωt + α1 + φ1 − ) + 2Iˆn cos(ωt + α2 + φ2 + ) (1.57)
3 3
√ 2π √ 2π
ic (t) = 2Iˆp cos(ωt + α1 + φ1 + ) + 2Iˆn cos(ωt + α2 + φ2 − ) (1.58)
3 3
Substituting the expressions (1.53)– (1.58) into (1.48) and (1.49) we can
write the space vectors as:
√ √
v = 2V̂p ej(ωt+α1 ) + 2V̂n e−j(ωt+α2 ) = v p + v n (1.59)
√ √
ˆ
i = 2Ip e j(ωt+α1 +φ1 ) ˆ
+ 2In e −j(ωt+α2 +φ2 )
= ip + in (1.60)
Substituting (1.59) and (1.60) into (1.52) allows us to write:

3 3
p= <{vi∗ } = <{(v p + v n )(i∗p + i∗n )} (1.61)
2 2
3
= [<{v p i∗p + v n i∗n } + <{v p i∗n + v n i∗p }] (1.62)
2 | {z } | {z }
+ve &-ve sequence real power +ve &-ve sequence reactive power
Remark 1.8 Note that (1.62) contains two main groups of terms. The first
ones the instantaneous power flowing, and is a constant value (which is well
know for three phase circuits). The second group of terms involving a mixture
of positive and negative sequence currents and voltages are effective the double
frequency reactive power terms. n
Using the definitions of (1.59) and (1.60) and substituting into (1.62) one
can write the following expression for the instantaneous power in terms of rms
values:
p = 3[(V̂p Iˆp cos φ1 + V̂n Iˆn cos φ2 )+

(V̂p Iˆn cos(2ωt + α1 + α2 + φ2 ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(2ωt + α1 + α2 + φ1 ))] (1.63)
Remark 1.9 As can be seen from (1.63) the first term contains the normal
three phase power term one is familar with from traditional three phase circuit
theory – there is the addition of the term from the average power for the negative
sequence. The last two terms of the expression are similar to the single phase
reactive powers. However, note that we are dealing with three phase power here,
and not single phase power. In a three phase system the total power due to the
VARs is instantaneously zero. Therefore these extra terms are new, and are an
artifact of the presence of the negative sequence voltages and currents. Note that
these terms contain an average zero double frequency component and hence no
average power flows in the three phase system due to them. n
Remark 1.10 If there are negative sequence currents present, but no negative
sequence voltage (which is approximately the case in many practical situations),
then v n ≈ 0. Therefore v n i∗n ≈ 0, and only the normal positive sequence average
power is present. If this were not the case, then a STATCOM would have to
supply the negative sequence power as part of the process of getting rid of the
negative sequence. This makes practical sense, since this situation implies that
there is unbalance in the voltages, and the STATCOM has to then support the
voltage. It has to supply the necessary energy to compensate for the negative
sequence power being generated by the unbalanced supply in order to do this. n
Let us consider the individual phase power in the case where the negative
sequence voltage can be assumed to be zero, but there is both positive and
negative sequence currents. We will assume that the control of the positive
sequence current is such that the positive sequence power is only reactive – i.e.
there is no three phase positive sequence real power, only three phase positive
sequence reactive power. This is the case when a STATCOM is controlling the
reactive power on a network. If will be assumed that the voltages and currents
are of the form shown in (1.53)–(1.58).
The general power expression is of the form:
p = va ia + vb ib + vc ic (1.64)
Each of these individual power expressions can be expanded to find the individ-
ual phase powers. Let us consider the expression:
p a = va i a (1.65)
Substituting (1.53) and (1.56) into (1.65) assuming that V̂n = 0 – i.e. the
negative sequence voltage component is zero. The phase angle α2 is also set to
zero. In order to simplify the expressions, and without loss of generality, α1 will
also be assumed to be π2 . We can therefore get:
√ √ π √
pa = 2V̂p cos ωt[ 2Iˆp cos(ωt + ) + 2Iˆn cos(ωt + φ2 )] (1.66)
2
π
= 2V̂p Iˆp cos ωt cos(ωt + ) + 2V̂p Iˆn cos ωt cos(ωt + φ2 ) (1.67)
2
The first term of (1.66) can be written as:
π 2V̂p Iˆp jωt π π

2V̂p Iˆp cos ωt cos(ωt + ) = (e + e−jωt )(ej(ωt+ 2 ) + e−j(ωt+ 2 ) ) (1.68)
2 4
2V̂p Iˆp j(2ωt+ π ) π π π
= (e 2 + e−j(2ωt+ 2 ) + e−j 2 + ej 2 )
4
(1.69)
2V̂p Iˆp π
= (2 cos(2ωt + ) + 0) (1.70)
4 2
π
∴ First term = V̂p Iˆp cos(2ωt + ) (1.71)
2
Remark 1.11 From (1.71) one can see that the average power of the first term
is zero. n
Now let us consider the 2nd term of (1.66), which is the term that con-
tains both positive and negative sequence components. Carrying out a similar
expansion we can write:
2V̂p Iˆn j(2ωt+φ2 )

2V̂p Iˆn cos ωt cos(ωt + φ2 ) = (e + e−j(2ωt+φ2 ) +
4
· · · ejφ2 + e−jφ2 ) (1.72)
∴ Second term = V̂p Iˆn [cos(2ωt + φ2 ) + cos φ2 ] (1.73)
= V̂p Iˆn cos(2ωt + φ2 ) + V̂p Iˆn cos φ2 (1.74)
Remark 1.12 The second term of (1.74) contains two components. The first
has an average value of zero over a period, and the second term has a constant
value depending on the value of φ2 . n
Remark 1.13 Overall the we can write the following expression for the instan-
taneous power in phase ‘a’ as:
π
pa = V̂p Iˆp cos(2ωt + ) + V̂p Iˆn cos(2ωt + φ2 ) + V̂p Iˆn cos φ2 (1.75)
2
Therefore the average phase power is:
pave
a = V̂p Iˆn cos φ2 (1.76)
Similar development can be carried out for the other phases. If this is done
one can get the following expressions:
π 4π 4π
pb = V̂p Iˆp cos(2ωt + − ) + V̂p Iˆn cos(2ωt + φ2 ) + V̂p Iˆn cos(φ2 + )
2 3 3
(1.77)
π 4π 4π
pc = V̂p Iˆp cos(2ωt + + ) + V̂p Iˆn cos(2ωt + φ2 ) + V̂p Iˆn cos(φ2 − )
2 3 3
(1.78)
Remark 1.14 As can be seen from (1.77) and (1.78) there is again oscillating
power terms with zero average, as well as an average term. One can see that in
general, irrespective of the value of φ2 there are always average real power terms
associated with the interaction of the positive sequence voltage and the negative
sequence current. n
If one considers the total power for the three phases we get (1.63). The
average power terms in each of the phases sum to be zero.
Remark 1.15 The important observation from the above analysis is that in
this simplified case, there is an average power in each individual phase, but
from a three phase perspective the average power is zero. This has important
implications for the H-bridge STATCOM, where the capacitors in each phase leg
are isolated from the capacitors in other phase legs. n
Conclusion 1.1 If one has asymmetry in the supply, then the three phase power
will contain the double frequency power components shown in (1.63). Therefore,
if one wishes to make the unsymmetrical supply symmetrical, then the equipment
that does this has to supply the double frequency power component. However,
because these components have no average power, then the equipment does not,
on average, have to generate or absorb real power. This means that it is tech-
nical feasible for a non-real power device such as a STATCOM to supply this
instantaneous power, but no average power. It should be emphasised that the
double frequency power component is in the three phase power, and whilst it
does not contain an average component, this does not necessarily mean that the
individual phases will have this property. n
Conclusion 1.2 Whilst the three phase average power into or out of the three
phase system is zero, the individual average powers on each phase in general are
not zero. Therefore, without some other remedial action the capacitor voltages
in a H-bridge based STATCOM that is injecting negative sequence currents into
a positive sequence voltage will either continually rise or fall. n
1.3 Techniques for Extracting the Symmetrical Components 11
1.3 Techniques for Extracting the Symmetrical

Components
The previous sections have presented the classical phasor based definition for
symmetrical components as appears in most power systems textbooks. When
one comes to use this approach then the practical issue of how to get the sym-
metrical components from the measurements of voltages and currents arises.
This section will present several techniques that have appeared in the literature
on this topic.
*********************
Add material here describing the technique used in the initial Saber
simulations, then that proposed by Hochgraf and Lasseter [7], and
finally by Jung [8].
*********************
Chapter 2
Theory of Power Factor

Control and Phase Balancing
2.1 Introduction
In this section we consider some general theory related to controlling the power
factor and balancing the phase currents in a network where we have an unbal-
anced load. This presentation is based on work that originally was carried out
by Steinmetz, but which has been more recently published in [9] and [10].
Remark 2.1 A basic assumption in all the following analysis is that the sup-
ply voltages are balanced, and the unbalance in the line currents is due to the
unbalanced load. n
2.2 Symmetry Compensation Using Passive Cir-

cuits
Consider the situation shown in Figure 2.1. Any wye (also known as (aka) Star)
connected three phase circuit can be represented as a Delta connected circuit via
the Star-Delta transformation (see Appendix A.4). Therefore the top diagram is
a general representation of a load – Star or Delta. The admittances of this load
– Yab , Ybc and Yca in a balanced situation will be the same, and in an unbalanced
case they are different. Each of the admittances is represented by terms of the
form Yxx = Gxx + jBxx for the various phases. If we want to convert this
complex load to a unity power factor load, but still in general an unbalanced
load, they all one has to do is place a susceptance, which is the negative of the
individual load susceptances, across each of the line to line loads. This is shown
in the second diagram from the top in Figure 2.1. Therefore the resultant load
c
with this parallel element in place becomes Yxx = Gxx + jBxx − jBxx = Gxx .
The resultant equivalent circuit is shown in the bottom diagram of Figure 2.1.
Because the load is now only a conductance then the power factor has to be
unity. However, because in general each of the conductances has a different
value, then the load is still unbalanced.
14 Theory of Power Factor Control and Phase Balancing
r r r
Ib Ic Ia
c
r
Ica
r
r
Vbc Vca
Ybc Yca
r
Ibc Yab
b r
Iab a
r
Vab
r r r
Ib Ic Ia
c r
Ica
-jBbc -jBca
Ybc Yca
r
Ibc Yab
b r a
Iab
-jBab
r r r
Ib Ic Ia
c
r
Ica
r
r
Vbc Vca
Gbc Gca
r
Ibc Gab
b r
Iab a
r
Vab
Figure 2.1: Development of unity power factor network.

2.2 Symmetry Compensation Using Passive Circuits 15
Remark 2.2 A crucial aspect of the balancing strategy is whether it can be

achieved without real power being required for the compensating elements. This
is important because if the compensation is to be achieved with a H-bridge STAT-
COM then this is a requirement. This is an additional requirement to that men-
tioned in Conclusion 1.1, which only states that the STATCOM as a whole entity
does not require real power, and not individual phases. n
The next step after achieving unity power factor is to now balance the supply
currents. This involves compensating for the different conductances.
2.2.1 Open Circuit Phase Imbalance

Let us begin this process by looking at a specific example of imbalance – an
open circuit phase in the wye connected load. If one open circuits a phase in a
Star then this, via the Star-Delta transformation in (A.72)- (A.74), equates to
a single impedance that is connected between two of the phases. This situation
appears in the top diagram of Figure 2.2.
We shall take a diagrammatic/graphical approach to the solution of this
balancing problem. Clearly the imbalance is at an extreme in this situation. In
order to solve the problem graphically we can begin by defining what we are
trying to achieve; we are attempting to generate in an equivalent wye connected
load both unity power factor, and at the same time complete balanced positive
sequence three phase currents from the supply.
Remark 2.3 Note that in Figure 2.2 we have a conductance load. Note that this
does not change the situation from the general case, because we can compensate a
general admittance load to a conductance load via the processes discussed above.
n
In the bottom diagram of Figure 2.2 one can see that there are three bal-
anced, three phase line currents drawn – ~Ia , ~Ib , ~Ic and three, three phase bal-
anced phase voltages – V ~ a, V
~ b, V
~ c . Note that the line currents are in phase
with the phase voltages since we have unity power factor. From the phase volt-
ages the line-line voltages can be easily found by carrying out the normal vector
subtractions of the phase voltages – i.e. V ~ ab = V
~a−V ~ b , and similarly for V
~ bc
and V~ ca .
We know that ~Iab has to be in phase with V ~ ab since we have a pure con-
ductance, Gab between nodes a and b. The magnitude of this conductance is
determined by the same conductance. We also know by Kirchoff’s Current Law
(KCL) that:
−~Iab + ~Ia + ~Ica = 0 (2.1)

⇒ ~Ia = ~Iab − ~Ica (2.2)
We are free to choose the element Yca between nodes c and a. We want this
element to be a reactive element so that it does not consume any real power. If
the element is an inductor then we get the current ~Ica as shown in Figure 2.2
– note that it is at 90◦ with respect to the V ~ ca phasor. The vector evaluation
of (2.2) determines the value of ~Ia . Since the line currents have to be balanced,
then the determination of ~Ia also effectively determines the phasors for ~Ib and
~Ic .
r r r
Ib Ic Ia
c
Equivalent to an
open circuited wye
r r
Vbc Vca connected load
Gab
b r
Iab a
r
Vab
r
Vca r
r -Vb
Vc
r
Vab
r
-Ibc r r r
Iab = Ia + Ica
r r
Ic Ica
r
r -Ica
Ibc
r r r r
-Va -Ibc Ia Va
r
-Iab r r
Ibc Ib
Vector diagram for
balanced phase currents
r r
Vb -Vc
r
Vbc
Figure 2.2: Balancing an open circuited phase.

In a similar fashion we can write that using KCL:

~Ibc = ~Ica − ~Ic (2.3)
or ~Ic = ~Ica − ~Ibc (2.4)
and
~Ib = ~Ibc − ~Iab (2.5)
This completes the phasor diagram.
Remark 2.4 The important point to note from this diagram is that both ~Ica and
~Ibc are at 90◦ angle with respect to the relevant voltage. Therefore the elements
that allow this current to flow are reactive elements and therefore on a phase
basis there is no real power flow. n
Figure 2.3 shows the completed Delta circuit with the balancing and unity
power factor elements added.
r r r
Ib Ic Ia
r
Ica
r r
Vbc Vca
jBbc -jBca
r
Ibc Gab
b r
Iab a
r
Vab
Figure 2.3: Balanced circuit when a phase is open circuited.
Remark 2.5 Note that when using a STATCOM it has to be controlled so that
the H-bridge legs in leg “ca” and leg “bc” are made to look like an inductor and
capacitor respectively. n
2.2.2 General Passive Imbalance Compensation

In this section we shall generalise the imbalance situation developed in the
previous section. This presentation is not completely general, in that we shall
be assuming that we require unity power factor as well as balance. It is more
general than the previous case though, in that we are accounting for the situation
where we have arbitrary load admittances of Yab , Ybc and Yca .
Given that we have arbitrary load admittances, then as discussed in Section 2
we can place parallel susceptances across these admittances so that the load
susceptances are cancelled leaving only the conductances. At this stage the unity
power factor requirement has been achieved, but the system is in general still
unbalanced. The resultant situation is shown in the top diagram of Figure 2.4.
The remainder of this section will develop the theory to calculate what the
additional balancing susceptances so that the line currents are balanced.
Let us define the following voltages and currents, as per Figure 2.4, for the
purposes of the following analysis:
~ a = V̂p ej0◦
V ~ b = V̂p e−j120◦
V ~ c = V̂p e−j240◦
V (2.6)
√ √ √
~ ab = 3V̂p ej30◦
V ~ bc = 3V̂p e−j90◦
V ~ ca = 3V̂p ej150◦
V (2.7)
We want unity power factor and balanced currents, which implies the following
situation:
~Ia = V
~ aG ~Ib = V
~ bG ~Ic = V
~ cG (2.8)
⇒ ~Ia = V̂p G ~Ib = V̂p Ge−j120◦ ~Ic = V̂p Ge−j240◦ (2.9)
The currents through each of the Delta phase legs are:
~Iab = V~ ab Y c = V
~ ab (Gab + jB c ) (2.10)
ab ab
~Ibc = V~ bc Y c = V
~ bc (Gbc + jB c ) (2.11)
bc bc
~Ica = V
~ ca Y c = V
~ ca (Gca + jB c ) (2.12)
ca ca
c c c
where Bab , Bbc and Bca are the compensating susceptances.
c c c
Essentially we have four unknowns – Bab , Bbc , Bca and G. We can write
three equations from the KCL equations at the three nodes in Figure 2.4. These
equations are complex, therefore using real and imaginary parts we effectively
have six equations.
Consider node “a” in the second diagram of Figure 2.4. Using KCL we can
write:
~Ia − ~Iab + ~Ica = 0 (2.13)
√ ◦
j30 c
√ ◦
∴ V̂p G − 3V̂p e (Gab + jBab ) + 3V̂p ej150 (Gca + jBca
c
)=0 (2.14)
Using the following:
√
j30◦ ◦ ◦ 3 1
e = cos 30 + j sin 30 = +j (2.15)
2 2
√
◦
◦ ◦ 3 1
ej150 = cos 150 + j sin 150 = − +j (2.16)
2 2
√ !
◦ 1 3
ej120 = cos 120◦ + j sin 120◦ = − + j (2.17)
2 2
√ !
−j120◦ ◦ 1◦ 3
e = cos(−120 ) + j sin(−120 ) = − − j (2.18)
2 2
◦
e−j90 = cos(−90◦ ) + j sin(−90◦ ) = −j (2.19)
r r r
Ib Ic Ia
c
r
Ica
r r
Vbc Vca
Gbc Gca
r
Ibc Gab
b r
Iab a
r
Vab
Gab ¹ Gbc ¹ Gca
r r r
Ib Ic Ia
c r
Ica
c c
jBbc jBca
Gbc Gca
r
Ibc Gab
b r a
Iab
c
jBab
r r r
Ib c Ic Ia
r
G Vc
G G
r r
r
Ibc Vb Va
b a
G = Gab + Gbc + Gca
Figure 2.4: Balancing of arbitrary load admittances

we can write, after some manipulation, (2.14) as:

√ c c 2G c c 1
3(Gab + Gca ) + Bca − Bab − √ + j(Bab + Bca + √ (Gab − Gca )) = 0 (2.20)
3 3
which can, breaking into real and imaginary parts, be written as:
c c 2G √
Bca − Bab = √ − 3(Gab − Gca ) (2.21)
3
c c 1
Bab + Bca = √ (Gca − Gab ) (2.22)
3
One can go through similar manipulations with the other nodes equations.
This is rather tedious algebra, and will not be written in full here.
Let us continue with node “b”. The KCL equation for this node is:
~Ib − ~Iab + ~Iab = 0 (2.23)
−j120◦
√ c
√ ◦
⇒ V̂p Ge + j 3V̂p (Gbc + jBbc ) + 3V̂p ej30 (Gab + jBab
c
)=0 (2.24)
After some manipulation and breaking into real and imaginary parts we can
write:
√
√ c 3 c 3 G
3Bbc + Bab = Gab − (2.25)
√2 2 2
3 c G Gab
B = − Gbc − (2.26)
2 ab 2 2
Now we do the same for node “c”. Again applying KCL:
~Ic − ~Ica + ~Ibc = 0 (2.27)
◦
j120
√ ◦
j150 c
√ c
⇒ V̂p Ge − 3V̂p e (Gca + jBca ) − j 3V̂p (Gbc + jBbc )=0 (2.28)
Breaking into real and imaginary parts are in the previous cases we get:
c c G √
Bca + 2Bbc = √ − 3Gca (2.29)
3
√ c
3Bca = Gca + 2Gbc − G (2.30)
Summary 2.1 Collecting together the real and imaginary expressions we have
evaluated so far in this section we get:
c c 2G √
Bca − Bab = √ − 3(Gab − Gca ) (2.31)
3
c c 1
Bab + Bca = √ (Gca − Gab ) (2.32)
3
√
√ c 3 c 3 G
3Bbc + Bab = Gab − (2.33)
√2 2 2
3 c G Gab
B = − Gbc − (2.34)
2 ab 2 2
c c G √
Bca + 2Bbc = √ − 3Gca (2.35)
3
√ c
3Bca = Gca + 2Gbc − G (2.36)
n
Remark 2.6 Equations (2.31)–(2.36) can now be solved to get the expressions
c c c
for G, Bab , Bbc , and Bca . n
From (2.32) one can write:
c 1 c
Bab = √ (Gca − Gab ) − Bca (2.37)
3
Substituting this into (2.31) and manipulating one gets:

√ √
c G 3 3 Gca Gab
Bca =√ − Gab − Gca + √ − √ (2.38)
3 2 2 2 3 2 3
From (2.34) one can write:
c G 2 Gab
Bab = √ − √ Gbc − √ (2.39)
3 3 3
Substituting (2.38) and (2.39) into (2.31) and manipulating gives the expression
for G as:
G = Gab + Gbc + Gca (2.40)
Using (2.34) together with (2.40) allows us to write:
c Gca − Gbc
Bab = √ (2.41)
3
Substituting (2.41) into (2.32) gives:
c Gbc − Gab
Bca = √ (2.42)
3
Finally substituting (2.40) into (2.36) gives the last expression:
c Gab − Gca
Bbc = √ (2.43)
3
Summary 2.2 Summarising, the susceptance elements required to achieve a

balanced supply in the circuit of Figure 2.4 are given by:
c Gca − Gbc
Bab = √ (2.44)
3
c Gab − Gca
Bbc = √ (2.45)
3
c Gbc − Gab
Bca = √ (2.46)
3
The equivalent admittance for each of the phases in the equivalent wye connected
system is:
G = Gab + Gbc + Gca (2.47)
The compensated system will now look like that of Figure 2.5. n
r r r
Ib Ic Ia
c r
Ica
(Gab - Gca ) (Gbc - Gab )
j j
3 3
Gbc Gca
r
Ibc Gab
b r a
Iab
(Gbc - Gca )
j
3
Figure 2.5: Susceptances required in order to balance an unbalanced load.
The above analysis was carried out on the assumption that one wanted
unity power factor. However, in many STATCOM applications the power factor
required may be different than unity. An example where this is an objective
is when one wants to support voltage. In this case the STATCOM has to look
capacitive.
One can carry out the analysis for this case in a similar manner to the
previous analysis carried out for unity power factor. The main difference from
the previous situation is that the line currents required are:
~Ia = V
~ aY ~Ib = V
~ bY ~Ic = V
~ cY (2.48)
where Y = G + jB.
We don’t know what the values of G and B are, but we do know what the
phase angle of the current is with respect to the voltage – i.e. the phase angle.
Therefore, the only unknown is the magnitude of the admittance. Therefore the
currents can be written as:
~Ia = V
~ a |Y |∠θY ~Ib = V
~ b |Y |∠θY ~Ic = V
~ c |Y |∠θY (2.49)
where:
p
|Y | = G2 + B 2 (2.50)

B
θY = arctan (2.51)
G
The formulation will therefore add an imaginary term to the previous evaluation
process, but there are still the same number of unknowns and hence there is
still a solution. Due to the similarity of the process the details of the evaluation
of this will be left to the reader.
Conjecture 2.1 The main conclusion that can be drawn from this section is
that it is possible to put imaginary admittances in parallel with an arbitrary load
so that one can achieve a desired power factor and symmetry of the line cur-
rents. Because the parallel elements are imaginary this means that they consume
no average power. Therefore, a power electronic device, such as the H-bridge,
which is unable to handle average real power, can be used to synthesise these
impedances. n
2.2.3 Wye Network Passive Balancing

The analysis thus-far in this section has dealt primarily with balancing using
Delta passive networks. However, it is obvious that once a Delta network has
been developed, then it is simply a matter to carry out a Star-Delta transfor-
mation to get the equivalent wye connected passive network to carry out the
compensation.
Remark 2.7 One obvious observation that can be made from this is that if the
Delta network is purely reactive in nature then so will be the wye connected
network. This can be seen from the Delta-Star transformation in Section A.4,
where the numerator is always real, but the denominator is imaginary. n
Remark 2.8 Remark 2.7 leads an important result as far as a H-bridge cascade
based STATCOM is concerned – i.e. that it is possible for each individual leg
of a wye connected STATCOM to only handle reactive power and at the same
time be able to balance an arbitrary unbalanced load. n
Remark 2.9 Remark 2.8 is important because if balancing can be carried out
using a wye connected STATCOM then the voltage rating of the individual legs
is lower compared to the Delta connected STATCOM (as proposed in [10]). This
clearly has significant economic implications. n
Chapter 3
Implementation
3.1 Investigation of Topologies

If one is to implement a STATCOM for making an unsymmetrical supply sym-
metrical there are a number of topologies that can be used. Traditionally a
conventional three phase three totem pole inverter leg has been used for this
application. When used on medium voltage systems this requires the use of a
transformer to couple the inverter to the system.
The advantage of the traditional three phase inverter configuration is that
there is a shared energy storage element between the three phases. The advan-
tages that this has are:
• The ripple current into the capacitor is very low as the instantaneous
current of the reactive current in a system is zero.
• If there is net power that is being absorbed from one phase it can be
transferred to another phase via the shared energy storage element.
The main disadvantage of the traditional topology is the transformer – it incurs
losses, it is expensive, bulky, and saturation can cause control problems [10].
For these reasons the direct connect H-Bridge STATCOM has received some
attention over the last couple of years.
The main advantages of the H-bridge or cascaded inverter topology are:
• Highly modular allowing easy extension of the number of levels as voltages
increase.
• The number of components required increase linearly with the number of
levels.
One of the main disadvantages of the topology is that the capacitors in each
of the bridges are all isolated, and therefore they are subjected to substantial
ripple current through them. This isolation also prevents the simple transfer
of energy from one phase to another phase in the wye connected topology of
H-bridges. Very few papers have been written addressing this problem, but one
that does propose a solution is [10]. This paper proposes a Delta connected
H-bridge configuration. This paper was actually found after the first solution
developed by the author was finished. Clearly the solution in [10] and the
26 Implementation
alternative solution of this paper are related. However, the control strategy
proposed in this paper to achieve zero power at a individual phase level is
completely different from the proposed and simulated in [10]. The work in [10]
was based very closely on ideas from [9], who in turn cited Steinmetz as the
original developer of the theory. This theory was developed in some detail in
Section 2.
3.1.1 The Real Power Problem

The most significant issue with H-bridge inverters when used in STATCOM
applications is their inability to handle real power. As pointed out earlier in this
report, a STATCOM as a whole, if carrying out reactive power compensation,
active filtering, and balancing of unbalanced systems, may absorb or generate
real power if the control is not carefully handled. Furthermore, this may or
may not be true on a per phase basis. We shall see evidence of this fact in
some simulations in Chapter 4. The per phase generation and absorption of
real power for a H-bridge cascade based STATCOM is very important, because
there is no common energy storage shared between the phases.
Most STATCOMs using H-bridge circuits are arranged in a wye configura-
tion.
√ One reason for doing this is the voltage rating of the individual H-bridges
is 3 lower than if a Delta configuration was used – it is simply a matter of
economics. However, the use of this configuration was thought (until this report
was written) to result in a limitation on the capabilities of the STATCOM – i.e.
it could only be used for reactive power control and active filtering. This meant
that unbalanced supplies could not be re-balanced because this involved real
power being absorbed on some phases and generated on others. As mentioned
in Section 3.1 the design of the H-bridge inverter means that each inverter in
a three phase wye connected configuration is isolated from the other inverter,
and hence it was though therefore that power could not be circulated between
the individual phases.
The statements in the above paragraph are true if a wye connected H-bridge
STATCOM is used, where each phase leg simulates a current source with a
value of the required negative sequence current, and the voltages across each
phase legs is a balanced three phase set. In this case usually one leg absorbs
real power, another generates real power, and the third leg has not average real
power transfer. This is easily verified by simulation. However, as we shall see
later in this chapter, if one allows unbalanced voltages across the phase legs
then the each phase leg can be controlled so that zero real power flows on a
phase-by-phase basis.
Remark 3.1 The trade-off for using the Delta connection is clearly the voltage
rating of the power electronic phase leg. If the H-bridge cascade converter is
being used, then this will correspond to either an increased number of levels, or
alternatively an increase in the voltage rating of each of the H-bridges making
up the cascade. Partially compensating for this is the fact that the current rating
of the legs will decrease by the same √13 factor as the increase in the voltage. n
Remark 3.2 The decrease in current rating for the Delta connection mentioned
in Remark 3.1 above is in reality not gained. This is because where unbalance is
being compensated zero sequence currents are required around the Delta which
3.2 Symmetry Compensation Using Active Components 27
means that the current rating for the Delta connection is approximately the same
as that of the Star connection. n
Remark 3.3 Note that even though individual phase legs may be absorbing
or generating power under unbalance compensation applications, the net power
flowing into the entire power electronic compensator is still zero. n
3.2 Symmetry Compensation Using Active Com-

ponents
In the previous chapter it was shown one can achieve compensation using passive
components, and furthermore the components required only need to be reactive
in nature. As noted in Remark 2.8 on Page 23, this means that it active imple-
mentation is used then it is possible for the active elements (whether they are
arranged in Delta or Star) to only have to handle reactive power.
In [10] it was shown that one way of implementing a Delta connected STAT-
COM using cascaded H-bridges was to get each element of the STATCOM to
simulate the passive components calculated as was done in the Section 2.2.2.
Once the passive components are calculated then the reference currents for the
H-bridge current controllers could be calculated using these values and the sys-
tem voltages.
Remark 3.4 One potential problem with the method used in [10] is that one
must accurately identify the load admittances so that the balancing admittances
can be accurate calculated. This could be the source of potential problems in
practice. n
Remark 3.5 In [10] it was not recognised that the technique can be extended to
wye connected systems. In fact [10] virtually states that wye connected H-bridge
systems cannot be used for symmetry balancing because that will have to handle
real power on a per-phase basis. n
This section shall develop what the author believes to be a new technique
to carry out balancing using active sources (current and voltage), connected in
both Delta and Star. The technique developed does not rely on explicit known
of the load admittances, but only requires measurement of the load currents.
The basic assumption in the following analysis is that we have either three
controllable current sources Delta connected, or that we have two controllable
current sources and a controllable voltage source in the wye connection.
3.2.1 Delta Connected Active Symmetry Compensation

We shall assume an active network of the form shown in Figure 3.1. Each of
the current sources we shall assumed can be arbitrarily controlled.
If one uses KCL at each of the phase nodes then one can write:
~Ia − ~Iab + ~Ica = 0 (3.1)
~Ib − ~Ibc + ~Iab = 0 (3.2)
~Ic − ~Ica + ~Ibc = 0 (3.3)
28 Implementation
ia
Phase a
vca
vab
iab ica
Phase b c
b
ib
ibc
vbc
Phase c
ic
Figure 3.1: Delta connected controlled current sources for active symmetry
compensation.
These equations can be rearranged to make ~Iab , ~Ibc and ~Ica the subject of the
expressions. However this is a non-unique process since we have three equations,
three unknowns, but the equations are not independent because of the fact that:
~Ia + ~Ib + ~Ic = 0 (3.4)
for a Delta connected network (to satisfy KCL for the network). However, if we
impose the constraint that the magnitude of the current source currents are √13
that of the magnitude of the space vector of the line currents, then one ends up
with the following solution for the individual current source currents in terms
of the line currents1 . This fact is calculated in Appendix A.2. The currents are:
~Iab = 1 (~Ia − ~Ib ) (3.5)

3
~Ibc = 1 (~Ib − ~Ic ) (3.6)
3
~Ica = 1 (~Ic − ~Ia ) (3.7)
3
Remark 3.6 The significance of equations (3.5), (3.6), and (3.7) are that they
allow us to set the values of the current sources for given input line currents. In
the appliation at hand the currents ~Ia , ~Ib and ~Ic would be the desired negative
sequence currents that we want the active compensator to compensate. n
The following section of this analysis is, to some degree, a leap of faith. We
shall introduce the concept of adding a zero sequence current to the currents
1 An alternative to this would be to impose the constraint that the current sources are all
balanced 120◦ phase separated.

calculated in (3.5), (3.6) and (3.7)2 .
Remark 3.7 If one implements current sources with the values calculated from
(3.5), (3.6) and (3.7) where ~Ia , ~Ib and ~Ic are the negative sequence currents
then one ends up with the situation that one of the current sources absorbing
real power, and other generating real power, and one absorbing zero power. This
situation is not sustainable if H-bridge cascade based phase legs are used to im-
plement the current sources, as these bridges cannot generate or absorb average
real power.
The addition of the zero sequence current to the reference values of the cur-
rents will be shown to be a technique to make sure that all the current sources
absorb no average real power. Of course adding a zero sequence current does
not contribute to the line currents, therefore the objective of the current sources
producing desired line currents is not influenced by the zero sequence. n
Let us define the desired input currents to the Delta to be:
~Ian = Iˆn ∠θan (3.8)

~Ibn 4π
= Iˆn ∠(θan − ) = Iˆn ∠θbn (3.9)
3
~Icn 2π
= Iˆn ∠(θan − ) = Iˆn ∠θcn (3.10)
3
therefore, using (3.5), (3.6) and (3.7) we can write:
~Iab = 1 (~Ian − ~Ibn ) (3.11)

3
~Ibc = 1 (~Ibn − ~Icn ) (3.12)
3
~Ica = 1 (~Icn − ~Ian ) (3.13)
3
The zero sequence current is defined as:
~I0 = Iˆ0 ∠α0 (3.14)
Therefore the current flowing in each of the current sources is as follows:
~Iab0 = ~Iab + ~I0 = 1 (~Ian − ~Ibn ) + ~I0 (3.15)

3
1
~Ibc0 = ~Ibc + ~I0 = (~Ibn − ~Icn ) + ~I0 (3.16)
3
1
~Ica0 = ~Ica + ~I0 = (~Icn − ~Ian ) + ~I0 (3.17)
3
Given, as noted previously, that the reference currents are not influenced by
the introduction of the zero sequence, we are interested to see if its introduction
can give a degree of freedom that will allow the average powers to be zero in
each of the current sources. Therefore we need to generate the expressions for
2 We shall demonstrate by example the effects of not introducing the zero sequence current
in the Simulation chapter.

30 Implementation
the current source powers. The generic power expressions are:

~Sab = V ~ ab 1 (~I∗ − ~I∗ ) + ~I∗
~ ab~I∗ = V (3.18)
ab0
3 an bn 0

~Sbc = V ~ bc 1 (~I∗ − ~I∗ ) + ~I∗
~ bc~I∗ = V (3.19)
bc0
3 bn cn 0

~Sca = V ~ bc 1 (~I∗ − ~I∗ ) + ~I∗
~ ca~I∗ = V (3.20)
ca0
3 cn an 0
~ ab , V
where V ~ bc and V
~ ca are defined as follows:
~ ab = V̂ab ∠θab
V (3.21)
~ bc 2π
V = V̂bc ∠(θab − ) (3.22)
3
~ ca 4π
V = V̂ca ∠(θab − ) (3.23)
3
Since there is a large degree of symmetry in this, we shall consider only
current source ‘ab’ initially. Expanding the power expression for source ‘ab’ we
can write:
~
~Sab = Vab (~I∗ − ~I∗ + 3~I∗ ) (3.24)
ab bn 0
3
V̂ab h i
= ∠θab Iˆan ∠(−θan ) − Iˆbn ∠(−θbn ) + 3Iˆ0 ∠(−α0 ) (3.25)
3
V̂ab ˆ
= Ian ∠(θab − θan ) − Iˆbn ∠(θab − θbn ) + 3Iˆ0 ∠(θab − α0 ) (3.26)
3
We are specifically interested in the real power in the current source – we want
the real power to be zero so that the current source does not need to supply or
absorb real power. Let us define:
n o
Pab = < ~Sab (3.27)
Recognising that:
2π 4π
θbn = θan + = θan − (3.28)
3 3
4π 2π
θcn = θan + = θan − (3.29)
3 3
we can write:
" #
V̂ab Iˆn 2π 3Iˆ0
Pab = cos(θab − θan ) − cos(θab − θan − )+ cos(θab − α0 )
3 3 Iˆn
(3.30)
Considering the term cos(θab − θan ) − cos(θab − θan − 2π
3 ) from (3.30), and
using the trig relation:

u+v u−v
cos v + cos u = 2 sin sin (3.31)
2 2
we can write that:

2π √ π
cos(θab − θan ) − cos(θab − θan − ) = − 3 sin(θab − θan − ) (3.32)
3 3
This can be further manipulated using sin x = cos(x − π2 ) to give the expression
in a cosine term:
2π √ 5π
cos(θab − θan ) − cos(θab − θan − ) = − 3 cos(θab − θan − ) (3.33)
3 6
Therefore (3.30) can be written as:
!
V̂ab Iˆn 3Iˆ0 √ 5π
Pab = cos(θab − α0 ) − 3 cos(θab − θan − ) (3.34)
3 Iˆn 6
A similar process can be carried out for the other two current sources, and
the real power expressions for these are:
!
V̂bc Iˆn 3Iˆ0 4π √ π
Pbc = cos(θab + − α0 ) − 3 cos(θab − θan − ) (3.35)
3 Iˆn 3 6
!
V̂ca Iˆn 3Iˆ0 2π √ π
Pca = cos(θab + − α0 ) − 3 cos(θab − θan + ) (3.36)
3 Iˆn 3 2
Summary 3.1 We can summarise the real powers in the individual current
sources as follows:

ˆ ˆ 0 1 5π
Pab = V̂ab In I0 cos(θab − α0 ) − √ cos(θab − θan − ) (3.37)
3 6

4π 1 π
Pbc = V̂bc Iˆn Iˆ00 cos(θab + − α0 ) − √ cos(θab − θan − ) (3.38)
3 3 6

2π 1 π
Pca = V̂ca Iˆn Iˆ00 cos(θab + − α0 ) − √ cos(θab − θan + ) (3.39)
3 3 2
Iˆ0
where Iˆ00 = Iˆn
– i.e. the normalised zero sequence current magnitude. n
We know from Conclusion 1.1 that the total real power flowing into the Delta
to re-symmetrise and unsymmetrical supply is zero, under the assumption that
there is no negative sequence voltage present3 . Therefore we can write:
Pab + Pbc + Pca = 0 (3.40)
This condition, however, does not mean that:
Pab = 0 (3.41)
Pbc = 0 (3.42)
Pca = 0 (3.43)
and this is the condition required for current source implementation using H-
bridge based cascade converters. We know from [9], [10], and Section 2.2 that
the balancing can be achieved with no real power in the individual branches of
a Delta, therefore it should be possible to achieve this.
3 This will only be approximately true, since the negative sequence current will introduce
a negative sequence voltage via the line impedances.

32 Implementation
Conjecture 3.1 It is possible to find a value for ~I0 so that

Pab = 0 (3.44)
Pbc = 0 (3.45)
Pca = 0 (3.46)
i.e. there is an amplitude. Iˆ0 and angle, ∠α0 so that all the real powers in the
current sources are simultaneously zero. n
If Conjecture 3.1 is correct, then this implies the following:
1 5π
Pab = 0 ⇒ Iˆ00 cos γ − √ cos(β − )=0 (3.47)
3 6
4π 1 π
Pbc = 0 ⇒ Iˆ00 cos(γ + ) − √ cos(β − ) = 0 (3.48)
3 3 6
2π 1 π
Pca = 0 ⇒ Iˆ00 cos(γ + ) − √ cos(β + ) = 0 (3.49)
3 3 2
where β = θab − θan and γ = θab − α0 .
The cos(β − 5π π π
6 ), cos(β − 6 ), and cos(β + 2 ) terms in (3.47), (3.48) and
(3.49) are constants, and will be denoted as follows:
1 5π
x = √ cos(β − ) (3.50)
3 6
1 π
y = √ cos(β − ) (3.51)
3 6
1 π
z = √ cos(β + ) (3.52)
3 2
For zero average real power we require:
Iˆ00 cos γ − x = 0 (3.53)
4π
Iˆ00 cos(γ + )−y =0 (3.54)
3
2π
Iˆ00 cos(γ + )−z =0 (3.55)
3
It can be easily shown that x+y+z = 0 (since these are 120◦ phase separated
cosines waveforms), therefore we have:
x+y+z =0 (3.56)
y+z
⇒ cos γ = − 0 (3.57)
Iˆ 0
Expanding (3.54) one can write:

4π 4π
Iˆ00 cos γ cos − sin γ sin −y =0 (3.58)
3 3
√ !
ˆ0 1 3
∴ I0 − cos γ + sin γ = 0 (3.59)
2 2
! √ !
1 y + z 3
∴ Iˆ00 + sin γ − y = 0 (3.60)
2 Iˆ00 2
Equation (3.60) can be rearranged as:

1
sin γ = √ (y − z) (3.61)
3Iˆ00
If one also uses (3.55) and carries out similar manipulations one will again
get (3.61).
Summary 3.2 The relevant expression for the zero sequence current to achieve
average zero power in the three sources of a Delta connected STATCOM carrying
out negative sequence cancellation are:
y+z
cos γ = − (3.62)
Iˆ00
1
sin γ = √ (y − z) (3.63)
3Iˆ00
where:
γ = θab − α0 (3.64)
Iˆ0
Iˆ00 = (3.65)
Iˆn
1 π
y = √ cos(β − ) (3.66)
3 6
1 π
z = √ cos(β + ) (3.67)
3 2
n
Equations (3.62) and (3.63) are two equations with two unknowns, namely
Iˆ00 and α0 . From these two equations we can write:
y+z
Iˆ00 = − (3.68)
cos γ
Sub into (3.63) gives:
y+z 1
− sin γ = √ (y − z) (3.69)
cos γ 3
1 y−z
∴ tan γ = − √ (3.70)
3y+z

z−y
or γ = arctan √ (3.71)
3(y + z)
Summary 3.3 For a Delta connected set of current sources, the real power in
all three current sources can be kept at an average value of zero by the injection
of a zero sequence current around the Delta, where the magnitude and angle of
the zero sequence is given by:

z−y
γ = arctan √ (3.72)
3(y + z)
y+z
Iˆ00 = − (3.73)
cos γ
34 Implementation
where:
γ = θab − α0 (3.74)
1 π
y = √ cos(θab − θan − ) (3.75)
3 6
1 π
z = √ cos(θab − θan + ) (3.76)
3 2
ˆ ˆ0ˆ
I0 = I0 In (3.77)
and ~I0 = Iˆ0 ∠α0 (3.78)
Remark 3.8 The arctan in (3.72) should be implemented using a four quadrant
arctan. n
Remark 3.9 This result achieves the same result as in [10]. However, in [10]
the current references were derived by identifying the load. In this case only
the relative phases of two of the currents are required, and the amplitude of the
negative sequence current. Therefore the control strategy implemented using this
approach is likely to be more robust than the technique in [10] as it only requires
measurement, and is not dependent on any identification processes. n
Remark 3.10 An important observation is that the expressions in Summary 3.3

on Page 33 also hold under conditions of unbalanced voltage magnitude. This
can be seen from the fact that the expressions do not involve voltages, but only
currents and angles. If the unbalance involves phase angle variations the differ
from 2π/3 then the situation is more complex. n
*********************
The above expressions need to be re-derived for the situation where
one has general unbalance – i.e. both magnitude and phase unbalance.
*********************
3.2.2 Wye Connected Active Symmetry Compensation

In Section 2.2.3 it was clear that a wye connected passive compensation circuit
could achieve exactly the same balancing as a Delta connected passive compen-
sation circuit. The key point about the wye connected circuit is that it was
composed of reactive elements, and therefore on a per phase basis no average
real power flowed into or out of the phase. Therefore, it is then conceivable
that a wye connected H-bridge cascade based active compensator would also
be feasible, since, as discussed previously, these structures cannot handle real
power flow. This fact does not seem to have been realised in [10], one of the few
papers that have appeared on this topic in the literature.
The passive wye connected compensation investigated in Section 2.2.3 gen-
erates in general an unbalanced reactive element based compensator. Therefore
the Star point of this compensator is no longer in general at zero potential. In
other words a zero sequence voltage has been introduced. This indicates that
the wye connected active compensation system may be the dual of the delta con-
nected active system – i.e. in the Delta a zero sequence current was introduced
in order to keep the individual active current sources average real power equal
to zero, and it the case of the wye connected one introduces a zero sequence
voltage to do the same.
Figure 3.2 shows the basic configuration of a wye connected active compen-
sator. For the moment we will consider that the unit has three current sources,
but as we shall find later this is perhaps not the correct way to implement the
unit (due to issues of making the current sum to zero at the Star if they are all
current sources).
Phase a
ia
va ¢
vab vca
vb ¢
vc ¢
Phase b
ib
vbc
Phase c
ic
Figure 3.2: Wye connected active compensator.
Let us begin by defining the main quantities in the derivation. The following
is with reference to Figure 3.3. The negative sequence currents are as defined
previously, and are reproduced here for convenience. Note that θan is relative
to an arbitrary reference angle.
~Ian = Iˆn ∠θan (3.79)

~Ibn = Iˆn ∠(θan − 4π ) (3.80)
3
~Icn = Iˆn ∠(θan − 2π
) (3.81)
3
Let us define a balance set of positive sequence phase voltages relative to the
36 Implementation
same arbitrary reference angle:

~ a = V̂∠θa
V (3.82)
~ b = V̂∠(θa − 2π )
V (3.83)
3
~ 4π
Vc = V̂∠(θa − ) (3.84)
3
We can define a zero sequence phase voltage as:
~ 0 = V̂0 ∠α0
V (3.85)
Therefore the actual resultant phase voltages are defined as:
~0 =V
V ~a+V
~0 (3.86)
a
~0 =V
V ~b+V
~0 (3.87)
b
~0 =V
V ~b+V
~0 (3.88)
c
r
r Ian
Vc
r qan - qa r
Va
Ibn
qan
qa
Ref axis
r r
Vb Icn
Figure 3.3: Vector definitions used in the derivation of the zero sequence voltage
for wye connected STATCOMs.
With these definitions, we can now calculate the powers in each of the phases
of the compensator, assuming that each phase leg is operating as a current source
for the relevant negative sequence current:
~Sa = V~ 0 ~I∗ (3.89)
a an
~Sb = V ~ 0 ~I∗ (3.90)
b bn
~Sc = V
~ 0 ~I∗ (3.91)
c cn
Taking the real component of ~Sa , ~Sb and ~Sc we can write:
" #
V̂0
<{~Sa } = V̂ Iˆn cos(θan − θa ) + cos(θan − α0 ) (3.92)
V̂
" #
~ ˆ 2π V̂0 4π
<{Sb } = V̂ In cos(θan − θa − )+ cos(θan − α0 − ) (3.93)
3 V̂ 3
" #
2π V̂ 0 4π
<{~Sc } = V̂ Iˆn cos(θan − θa + )+ cos(θan − α0 + ) (3.94)
3 V̂ 3
Remark 3.11 Note that θan −θa = ζ is an angle that is fixed by the relationship
between the negative sequence current phasors and the positive sequence voltage
phasor – it is established by external circuit conditions. n
Taking (3.92) and (3.93) and equating to zero (so that we have two equations
in two unknowns – V̂0 and α0 ) we can write:
V̂0
cos(θan − θa ) = − cos(θan − α0 ) (3.95)
V̂
2π V̂0 4π
cos(θan − θa − ) = − cos(θan − α0 − ) (3.96)
3 V̂ 3
√
2π V̂0 3V̂0
∴ cos(θan − θa − )= cos(θan − α0 ) + sin(θan − α0 ) (3.97)
3 2V̂ 2V̂
Substituting (3.95) into (3.97) we can write after some simplification:
V̂0
sin(θan − θa ) = sin(θan − α0 ) (3.98)
V̂
Rearranging (3.95) to make V̂0 /V̂ the subject of the expression, and then sub-
stituting into (3.98) and rearranging we can write:
tan(θan − α0 ) = − tan(θan − θa ) (3.99)
Taking the inverse tan of both sides of (3.99) we can obviously write:
θan − α0 = −(θan − θa ) (3.100)

∴ α0 = 2θan − θa = θan + ζ (3.101)
~ a phasor (i.e. the balanced system

where ζ = θan − θa , the angle between the V
phasor) and the negative sequence current phasor ~Ian .
Substituting (3.101) into (3.95) we can write:
V̂0
cos(θan − θa ) = − cos(θan − θan − ζ) (3.102)
V̂
V̂0
∴ cos ζ = − cos ζ (3.103)
V̂
or V̂0 = −V̂ (3.104)
∴V~ 0 = −V̂∠α0 = V̂∠(α0 + π) (3.105)
38 Implementation
r r
Vc V0
r
Vc'
r
Ian
r
Va'
r r
Va V0
r r
Ibn Icn
r
Vb'
r r
Vb V0
Figure 3.4: Phasor diagram of balancing in a wye connected STATCOM with

zero sequence voltage injection.
Remark 3.12 Equations (3.101) and (3.104) say that the magnitude of the
zero sequence is always equal to the magnitude of the balanced phasor voltages,
and the angle of the phasor is always ζ = θan − θa from the V~ a phasor. n
Remark 3.13 If one considers the situation where θa = 0 and ζ = π/2 ⇒

θan = π/2 ⇒ α0 = π, which means that the V ~ 0 phasor is in phase with the V
~a
phasor. Therefore the voltage appearing across phase ‘a’ is:
~0 =V
V ~a+V
~a (3.106)
a
as V~0 = V~ a . This means that the power electronics for this phase would have
to be rated at twice the normal voltage. The voltages across the other two phase
have the same magnitude as the normal phase voltages, but the angle of the
phasors is now different. However, in terms of voltage rating, these phase legs
do not need to be rated any higher than is normal in a wye connected system. A
phasor diagram showing this case appears in Figure 3.4. Notice that the negative
sequence currents are at 90◦ to the relevant phase leg voltages. n
Remark 3.14 One question that one may ask is; what happens as the negative
sequence current goes to zero in amplitude? One can see from the power expres-
sion of (3.92),(3.93) and (3.94) that the real powers associated with the current
go to zero. However, the zero sequence voltage associated with the presence of
negative sequence currents is not a function of the magnitude of the negative
sequence current, and is only a function of its presence. That is, whilst ever
there is a negative sequence present, there needs to be the same magnitude zero
sequence voltage to prevent real power flow. n
3.3 Phase Power Balancing 39
Remark 3.15 Another possibility that arises from the above analysis is that
of using negative sequences to help carry out fine balancing of the power flows
into and out of the individual phase legs in the H-bridge phase cascades. Even
if one is not going to balance an unbalanced system by using negative sequence
currents, one can artificially introduce them so to introduce an extra control.
For example, one can vary the phase and magnitude of the zero sequence, and
thereby introduce an added degree of freedom in balancing the real powers of the
phases. n
Summary 3.4 In order for the three wye connected H-bridge based cascade
current sources not to absorb or generate real power, the star point of the current
sources has to have a zero sequence voltage added to it of the form:
~ 0 = V̂∠(θan + ζ)
V (3.107)
where θan , the angle of ~Ian relative to the arbitrary reference angle of θa , and
ζ , the angle of the ~Ian phasor relative to the V
~ a phasor.
The actual voltages across the individual phases with the zero sequence volt-
age added are:
~0 =V
V ~a+V
~0 (3.108)
a
~0 =V
V ~b+V
~0 (3.109)
b
~0 =V
V ~c+V
~0 (3.110)
c
3.3 Phase Power Balancing
*********************
The following paragraph contains Bob’s initial thoughts on Phase
Power Balancing using negative sequence components. I have left
this here for the moment but it will have to be integrated into the
text of this section properly.
*********************
One interesting possibility that arises from the expressions in the previous
section is the concept of power balancing for the phases. The normal displace-
ment power factor control algorithm uses three phase quantities to control the
real and reactive power into the STATCOM. The real power is used to control,
in some sense, the real power flowing into the phases of the STATCOM. How-
ever, this is controlled in a three phase sense, and the voltages on the individual
phases are not controlled (see Section 1.1). The theory presented in the previous
section indicates that perhaps the negative sequence current control can be used
to offer another degree of freedom with respect to controlling the power in the
individual phases.
The key point technically in terms of controlling the phase powers is to
determine what happens if one manipulates the amplitude and phase of the
40 Implementation
injected zero sequence voltage – how does the voltage in the phases change with
this manipulation?
If one takes the derivative of the power expressions (3.92), (3.93)and (3.94),
then one can obtain the following. Firstly the derivatives with respect to α0 :
∂Pan
= V̂0 Iˆn sin(θan − α0 ) = −V̂0 Iˆn sin ζ (3.111)
∂α0
∂Pbn 4π 4π
= V̂0 Iˆn sin(θan − α0 − ) = −V̂0 Iˆn sin(ζ + ) (3.112)
∂α0 3 3
∂Pcn 4π 4π
= V̂0 Iˆn sin(θan − α0 + ) = −V̂0 Iˆn sin(ζ − ) (3.113)
∂α0 3 3
and secondly with respect to V̂0 :
∂Pan
= Iˆn cos(θan − α0 ) = Iˆn cos ζ (3.114)
∂ V̂0
∂Pbn 4π 4π
= Iˆn cos(θan − θa + ) = Iˆn cos(ζ + ) (3.115)
∂ V̂0 3 3
∂Pcn 4π 4π
= Iˆn cos(θan − θa − ) = Iˆn cos(ζ − ) (3.116)
∂ V̂0 3 3
where α0 = 2θan − θa and ζ = θan − θa .
Remark 3.16 As can be seen from the above equations, the rates of change in
the individual powers are complex with changes in V̂0 and α0 . We shall return
to the practical implications of this in the next chapter. n
3.3.1 Phase Power Balancing using Zero Sequence Com-

ponents
*********************
This subsection has to be tidied up and some figures added which
explain the symbols used. I’ve tried to be consistent with the rest
of the report but there may be some inconsistencies in this. The
simulation studies are still to be completed.
*********************
The previous work in this report has indicated that phase power balancing
(balancing the sum of the voltages on the individual H-bridges in each phase leg
of a cascaded H-bridge STATCOM) may be able to be achieved by the injection
of either negative or zero sequence currents for a delta connected STATCOM or
negative or zero sequence voltages for a Y connected STATCOM. This section
looks at injecting zero sequence components to achieve phase power balance.
Throughout this section we are making the assumption that the line voltages
are balanced similar to the situation in Yoshii et al.’s 2006 IEEE IAS paper [11].
3.3.1.1 The Y Connected Case

For the Y connected STATCOM a zero sequence voltage has to be imposed as
per Section 3.2.2.
Let us define the voltages across the a, b and c phases respectively to be:
~0 =V
V ~a+V
~0 (3.117)
a
~ =V
V 0 ~b+V
~0 (3.118)
b
~0 =V
V ~c+V
~0 (3.119)
c
The individual phase apparent powers are then:
~Sa = V~ 0 ~I∗ (3.120)

a ap
~Sb = V ~ 0 ~I∗ (3.121)
b bp
~Sc = V
~ 0 ~I∗ (3.122)
c cp
The real power in each phase is simply the real part of (3.120), (3.121) and
(3.122). That is:
" #
n o V̂0
< ~Sa = V̂ Iˆp cos(θap − θa ) + cos(θap − α0 ) (3.123)
V̂
" #
n o
~ ˆ V̂0 2π
< Sb = V̂ Ip cos(θap − θa ) + cos(θap − α0 − ) (3.124)
V̂ 3
" #
n o V̂0 2π
< ~Sc = V̂ Iˆp cos(θap − θa ) + cos(θap − α0 + ) (3.125)
V̂ 3
Further let the sum of the phase powers flowing into the STATCOM be equal
to P . That is:
k=c
X n o
P = < ~Sk , k ∈ [a, b, c] (3.126)
k=a
If we are controlling the three phase power into the STATCOM via standard
PQ theory then the power will be split evenly amongst the three phases of the
STATCOM so (3.123), (3.124) and (3.125) become:
n o P
< ~Sa = + V̂0 Iˆp cos(θap − α0 ) (3.127)
3
n o P 2π
< ~Sb = + V̂0 Iˆp cos(θap − α0 − ) (3.128)
3 2
n o P 2π
< ~Sc = + V̂0 Iˆp cos(θap − α0 + ) (3.129)
3 2
n o n o n o
Now < ~Sa , < ~Sb and < ~Sc are the desired powers for each of the
phase legs.
P
3 is known and comes from the PQ control as mentioned previously.
Equations (3.127) and (3.128) give us two equations with two unknowns as
the positive sequence current Iˆp ∠(θap ) is also fixed by the PQ control.
42 Implementation
n o n o n o
If we let < ~Sa = Pa∗ , < ~Sb = Pb∗ and < ~Sc = Pc∗ then (3.127) and
(3.128) can be written as:
P
Pa∗ − = V̂0 Iˆp cos(θap − α0 ) (3.130)
3
P 2π
Pb∗ − = V̂0 Iˆp cos(θap − α0 − ) (3.131)
3 3
From (3.131)

P ˆ 2π 2π
Pb∗ − = V̂0 Ip cos(θap − α0 ) cos( ) + sin(θap − α0 ) sin( ) (3.132)
3 3 3
Dividing (3.132) by (3.130) gives us:
Pb∗ − P
3 cos(θap − α0 ) cos( 2π 2π
3 ) + sin(θap − α0 ) sin( 3 )
P
= (3.133)
Pa∗ − 3
cos(θap − α0 )
2π 2π
= cos( ) + tan(θap − α0 ) sin( ) (3.134)
3 3
Therefore,
Pb∗ − P3

Pa∗ − P3
− cos( 2π
3 )
tan(θap − α0 ) = (3.135)
sin( 2π )
∗
P
3
P −
2 Pb∗ − P3 + 1
= a
√3 (3.136)
3
Therefore,
 P ∗− P 
2 Pb∗ − P3 + 1
θap − α0 = tan−1  a
√3  (3.137)
3
or  P ∗− P 
2 Pb∗ − P3 + 1
α0 = θap − tan−1  a
√3  (3.138)
3
Substituting (3.138) into (3.130) gives
Pa∗ − P
3
V̂0 = (3.139)
Iˆp cos(tan −1
(F))
∗ P
Pb −
2 3 +1
∗− P
Pa
where F = √3
3
.
3.3.1.2 The ∆ connected case.

In the ∆ case, leg balancing is able to be achieved by injecting zero sequence cur-
rents as opposed to imposing a zero sequence voltage as per the star connected
case.
For the ∆ connected case the appropriate equations for apparent power are:
h i
~Sab = V ~ ab~I∗ = V
~ ab ~I∗ + ~I∗ (3.140)
ab0 ab 0
h i
~Sbc = V~ bc~I∗ = V
~ bc ~I∗ + ~I∗ (3.141)
bc0 bc 0
h i
~Sca = V
~ ca~I∗ = V
~ ca ~I∗ + ~I∗ (3.142)
ca0 ca 0
Expanding (3.140), (3.141) and (3.142) we get:

~ ab 1 ~I∗ − ~I∗ + ~I∗

~Sab = V
3 ap bp 0

1 ˆ ˆ 2π ˆ
= V̂p ∠(θab ) Ip ∠(−θap ) − Ip ∠(−θap + ) + I∠(−α0 )
3 3

1ˆ 2π ˆ
= V̂p ∠(θab ) Ip ∠(−θap ) 1 − ∠( ) + I∠(−α0 )
3 3
√

1ˆ π ˆ
= V̂p ∠(θab ) Ip ∠(−θap ) × 3∠(− ) + I∠(−α0 )
3 6
1 π
∴ ~Sab = √ V̂p Iˆp ∠ θab − θap − + V̂p Iˆ0 ∠(θab − α0 ) (3.143)
3 6
Expanding (3.141) and (3.142) in a similar fashion gives us:
~Sbc = √1 V̂p Iˆp ∠ θab − θap − π + V̂p Iˆ0 ∠(θab − α0 − 2π )

(3.144)
3 6 3
and
~Sca = √1 V̂p Iˆp ∠ θab − θap − π + V̂p Iˆ0 ∠(θab − α0 + 2π )

(3.145)
3 6 3
Equations (3.143), (3.144) and (3.145) are each made up of three compo-
nents. One component associated with the positive sequence voltages and cur-
rents ( √13 V̂p Iˆp ∠ θab − θap − π6 ) and one component associated with the zero
sequence current and positive sequence voltage. This is analogous with the
apparent power expressions obtained in Section 3.3.1.1.
We are concerned with real power here so
1 π
Pab = <{~Sab } = √ V̂p Iˆp cos θab − θap − + V̂p Iˆ0 cos(θab − α0 ) (3.146)
3 6
1 π 2π
Pbc = <{~Sbc } = √ V̂p Iˆp cos θab − θap − + V̂p Iˆ0 cos(θab − α0 − )
3 6 3
(3.147)
1 π 2π
Pca = <{~Sca } = √ V̂p Iˆp cos θab − θap − + V̂p Iˆ0 cos(θab − α0 + )
3 6 3
(3.148)
Similarly to Section 3.3.1.1, if we are controlling the three phase power into
the STATCOM via standard PQ theory then the power will be split evenly
amongst the three phases of the STATCOM. Allowing
P 1 π
= √ V̂p Iˆp cos θab − θap −
3 3 6
44 Implementation
Then,
P
Pab = + V̂p Iˆ0 cos(θab − α0 ) (3.149)
3
P 2π
Pbc = + V̂p Iˆ0 cos(θab − α0 − ) (3.150)
3 3
P 2π
Pca = + V̂p Iˆ0 cos(θab − α0 + ) (3.151)
3 3
Equations (3.149), (3.150) and (3.151) have exactly the same form as (3.127),
(3.128) and (3.129) and consequently the solution for α0 and Iˆ0 have the same
form as the solutions for α0 and V̂0 in the Y connected case.
That is:
 P −P 
2 P bc − P3 + 1
α0 = αab − tan−1 
ab
√3  (3.152)
3
and
Pab − P3
Iˆ0 =  
Pbc − P
 (3.153)
2 3 +1
Pab − P
V̂p cos tan−1  √3
3

3.4 Control Integration Issues

One question that arises with the compensation that we are applying is; “how
does unbalance compensation interact with reactive power compensation and
active filtering?”
The simple answer to the above question is that it doesn’t. The algorithm
that is being used has been derived making no assumptions about the nature
of the load – it is derived for an arbitrary set of negative sequence currents.
Therefore the algorithm will compensate for unbalance in an arbitrary unbal-
anced load – i.e. unbalance in both the real and imaginary parts of the load
impedance. When the load has been balanced then the reactive power is work-
ing on the completely balanced positive sequence currents, and consequently
normal PQ control theory for balanced three phase systems can be used. Even
if the load is not balanced, the reactive power compensation will work only on
the positive sequence component of the currents. In this way the PQ theory can
still be used regardless of the balance situation4 .
Remark 3.17 The control system for the compensator can essentially be broken
into two orthogonal parts – the positive sequence control which is the traditional
displacement power factor control, and the negative sequence or unbalance con-
trol. These two control can operate independently, since the negative sequence
does not effect the positive sequence. n
4 Note that unbalance may/will result in problems in the real power balance of the H-bridges
in a cascade inverter structure.

3.5 H-bridge Converter Ratings 45
With respect to also requiring active filtering of harmonics, this would be

applied on a phase basis5 , with the required harmonic currents being added to
the current references for the negative and positive sequences.
The other very relevant issue with respect to control is that the approach
taken in this report will enable the implementation of feedback control of un-
balance, displacement power factor, and harmonics. Some techniques proposed
in the literature (e.g. [10]) result in essentially open loop control strategies.
3.4.1 Power System Topology Issues

Of importance is is the effect that the power system topology has on the design
of the control of the STATCOM. The discussion and theory developed thus-far
has implicitly been for a radially connected system – i.e. there is a clear source
and load side with respect to the point of coupling of the STATCOM. However,
if one has multiple feeders, and a complex load connection, then this may not
be as clear. Ring connected systems with multiple feeders and loads is also a
possibility.
In all these situations the definition of source and load can be made on the
basis of real power flow – i.e. the load is the side of the compensator connection
that real power flows to, and the source is where the real power flows from. In
the case where a STATCOM is connected in a ring structure, then depending
in the load configuration relative to the feed configuration, clearly the load and
source sides of the STATCOM can reverse. Therefore the instrumentation and
control of the STATCOM has to be symmetrical.
3.5 H-bridge Converter Ratings

One of the most important implications of the zero sequence injection strategies
is with respect to the ratings of the H-bridge cascade converters required to
implement the individual legs of the Delta and Wye connected topologies.
Remark 3.18 Note that we are only considering the rating effects with respect
to balancing an unbalanced system. If one is also controlling reactive power via
the positive sequence then these currents will also need to be considered in the
overall rating of the converter. n
3.5.1 Delta Connection Ratings

√
Clearly the Delta connection has a 3 voltage penalty with respect to the Wye
connection simply due to the configuration. However,
√ if no power balancing is
occurring then the phase currents will be 1/ 3 of the line current, therefore
voltage rating is being traded off against current rating.
However, as mentioned previously, when we attempt to implement negative
sequence cancellation, we need to inject zero sequence currents into the Delta
in order to make the average power in each of the current sources zero. This,
unfortunately has adverse on the current ratings of the Delta current sources.
Consider the expressions for the injected zero sequence current for the Delta
connected current sources that appear in Summary 3.3. If these expressions
5 The harmonics, in general, may be different in the different phases, especially with an
unbalanced load.
46 Implementation
are programmed as a Scilab script and the magnitude, angle and current source
phase currents are plotted then one obtains the results shown in Figures 3.5,
3.6 and 3.7. Note that these plots are for the case of θab = 0 – i.e. the phase
~ ab relative to some reference point.
angle of V
I0_n Zero sequence ampliutde versus Negative sequence phase
0.0
−0.1
−0.2
−0.3
−0.4
−0.5
−0.6
−0.7
−0.8
−0.9
−1.0 Theta_an
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 3.5: Normalised injected zero sequence current versus the negative se-
quence current phase.
Figure 3.5 shows the normalised injected zero sequence current versus the
phase angle of the negative sequence. The current is normalised relative to
the magnitude of the negative sequence line current into
√ the compensator. The
salient observation is that the current magnitude is 1/ 3 = 0.577 of the √
magni-
tude of the negative sequence line current magnitude – i.e. the normal 1/ 3 rule
that applies with Wye to Delta connection applies to the injected zero sequence
current. Figure 3.6 shows how the phase of the zero sequence varies with the
change in the negative sequence phase.
Finally, Figure 3.7 hows how the total normalised currents6 in each of the
phase current sources varies with the phase of the negative sequence. Notice
that the peak magnitude of the phase current is larger than the magnitude of
the negative sequence current (which is “1” on the normalised scale being used).
Conclusion 3.1 One can therefore conclude that the Delta connected compen-
sator with zero sequence current injection must be rated to withstand the line-
line voltage (this in independent of the injection), and with 1.15 times the line
current. n
3.5.2 Wye Connected Converter Ratings

Similarly to the Delta connection there are implications of zero sequence voltage
injection on the ratings of the Wye connected converter. One can see from
Summary 3.4 that the phase voltages are composed of the normal balanced
6 That is the normal phase current plus the zero sequence current.
3.5 H-bridge Converter Ratings 47
Alpha_0 Zero Sequence Phase versus Negative Sequence Phase
−1
−2
−3
−4 Theta_an
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 3.6: Injected zero sequence current phase angle versus negative sequence
current phase.
Normalised Current Current Source Phase Currents versus Theta_an
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0 Theta_an
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure 3.7: Delta current source current amplitudes with zero sequence current
injection versus negative sequence current phase.
48 Implementation
phase voltage plus the zero sequence voltage. Since the zero sequence voltage
has the same amplitude as the normal balance phase voltages, and the phase
angle of the zero sequence voltage depends on the phase angle of the negative
sequence current required, then this means that the phase legs have to be rated
at twice the normal phase voltage.
Conclusion 3.2 The voltage rating on the Wye connected converter with zero
sequence voltage injection is twice the rated voltage. The current rating is the
normal line current rating, and does not change. n
Conclusion 3.3 Overall, the Delta configuration has to have a higher voltage √
rating compared to the balance voltage Wye connected converter (by the 3
factor). The current rating required is 1.15 times the line current, which is only
marginally larger than a Wye connection (15% larger).
On the other hand the Wye connection has to have all the legs rated at twice
the normal phase voltage rating, which is 1.15 times the line-line rating of the
Delta connection (i.e. 15% larger than the Delta rating). The current rating
however is the same as the required negative sequence current amplitude.
One can see from the above, that in terms of ratings the Delta and Wye
connections are duals of each other. Delta requires a 1.15 times current rating
with respect to the Wye current rating, the Wye requires a 1.15 times voltage
rating with respect to the Delta voltage rating. n
3.6 Unbalanced Voltage Support

The previous analysis in this chapter has assumed that the voltages behind the
line impedances are balanced. The control has been attempting to re-balance
the unbalanced currents drawn by the load. The unbalance introduced into the
voltages because of these unbalanced currents has been ignored.
Remark 3.19 In effect the objective of the control up to this point in the chap-
ter has been to stop unbalanced voltages from being generated at the point of com-
mon coupling. These voltages would be generated without balancing the currents
because of the flow of the unbalanced currents through the network impedances
(which are assumed to be the same for the three phases). The analysis implicitly
assumes that the unbalance in the voltages is due to the unbalanced load con-
nected to the point of common coupling – i.e. at the point of the STATCOM
connection to the system. n
In most power systems there is often unbalance at the point of common
coupling (PCC) from the voltages that are feeding the load connected to the
point. Even if the currents at the PCC could be made to be balanced, then the
unbalance voltages at the PCC would remain because the system voltages are
unbalanced.
Remark 3.20 The unbalanced “system” voltages could be the result of unbalance
loads connected further back in the system (this would be a chronic unbalance),
or more likely it could be a transient unbalance as a result of a single phase fault
in the system elsewhere. n
This section will investigate the ability of the STATCOM to support tran-
sient unbalance situations. Therefore the STATCOM is being used as a short
3.6 Unbalanced Voltage Support 49
term voltage support device to minimise the effects of transient supply voltage
dips at the point of common coupling.
Remark 3.21 The objective of the STATCOM, in this particular case, is to

improve the quality of the supply the the consumer is seeing in the presence of a
supply voltage dip. This is a pure “power quality” issue, in that the distribution
authority may not see any benefit in this control strategy from their view point.
The previous strategy of balancing unbalanced currents did have a benefit to the
distribution authority, in that it prevent unbalanced currents from flowing in the
network, and allowed more flexibility in the distribution of single phase loads,
and gave the system more robustness to single phase open circuits. n
The control strategies required to re-balance this unbalance are fundamen-

tally different in their approach to those of the previous section. In this case one
is trying to re-balance the voltage at the PCC, regardless of the load balance
or the system supply voltage balance. This means that the control must take a
“voltage centric” approach as opposed to the previous current driven approach.
Therefore the techniques will be attempting to eliminate the negative sequence
voltages at the PCC, as compared to the negative sequence current.
Remark 3.22 If the load is unbalanced then eliminating the negative sequence
voltage will not eliminate the negative sequence current drawn by the load.
Therefore the previous control strategy will also still be needed. n
Remark 3.23 If the load is balanced then eliminating the negative sequence
voltage is synonymous with eliminating the negative sequence current drawn by
the load. However, if the load is unbalance then clearly a zero negative sequence
voltage at the PCC will result in negative sequence currents flowing. n
Considerable work has already been published on the use of STATCOMs

for voltage support when there are unbalanced voltages in the system[12, 13,
14, 7, 15]. Almost all of these papers deal with the case of a conventional
STATCOM – i.e. using a two level converter with an interposing transformer.
If a multilevel converter was discussed it was of the type with a common DC
bus for the capacitors. The situation of the H-bridge multilevel converter, and
its unique problem of requiring individual power balancing, is not addressed
in these papers. We shall review the relevant parts of the theory developed in
these papers, as much of it is applicable to the H-bridge situation with respect
to the overall control strategies, and the degree of voltage compensation that
can be achieved.
3.6.1 Relevant Paper Reviews

3.6.1.1 “Compensation of Distribution System Voltage Sag by DVR
and D-STATCOM” – M.H. Haque
We shall begin by reviewing [14] since this paper addresses some of the issues
with respect to compensation for a balanced voltage dip. Specifically it con-
siders the ratings required by both a dynamic voltage restorer and the STAT-
COM to alleviate a three phase voltage dip. In this review only the STATCOM
issues will be considered.
50 Implementation
r r
Vs VL
Rth Xth
r
Vs
r r r
Is Ic IL
PL + jQL
STATCOM
Figure 3.8: Single line connection diagram for a generic STATCOM.
The following explanation will refer to Figure 3.8. This diagram depicts
the typical connection of a generic STATCOM to a load bus. It is assumed
that the load connected to the load bus is requiring PL + jQL complex power,
and this value of power is intimately connected to the bus voltage V ~ L . The
Thevenin equivalent of the system impedances are represented by the impedance
~ th = Rth + jXth , where it will be assumed that Xth is an inductive impedance
Z
in this case. In the following analysis we shall assume that the load bus voltage is
the reference with respect to phase. In addition it will be assumed that the load
voltage magnitude is kept constant, whereas the system voltage can undergo
dips due to faults on the system. The constant load voltage will be maintained
via intervention from the STATCOM.
It can be seen from Figure 3.8 that the relationship between the currents is:
~Is = ~IL + ~Ic (3.154)
Therefore:
~Ic = ~Is − ~IL (3.155)
The expression for the system current ~Is is using standard circuit theory:
~ ~
~Is = Vs − VL (3.156)
~ th
Z
Let:
~ th = Rth + jXth = Zth ∠β
Z (3.157)
~ L = V̂L ∠0
V (3.158)
V~ s = V̂s ∠δ (3.159)
Substituting (3.156) into (3.155) we can write the following expression for
the compensation current:
~ ~
~Ic = Vs − VL − ~IL (3.160)
~
Zth
V̂s V̂L
∴ Iˆc ∠ζ = ∠(δ − β) − ∠(−β) − IˆL ∠(−θ) (3.161)
Ẑth Ẑth
Remark 3.24 Equation (3.161) gives the expression for the compensator cur-
rent under the conditions of the bus voltages indicated. Clearly the angle of the
compensator current ζ can be any value dependent on the other circuit condi-
tions. The following analysis will develop the voltage conditions in such a way
that ζ = ± π2 . This current condition means that the STATCOM will not be
supplying any real real power. The other condition is that the load bus
voltage will be held constant at the value that allows the load power to continue
even though the system voltage may have dipped below the normal rated voltage
value. n
Remark 3.25 In [14] the situation of minimum injected apparent power is also
investigated. In this case the STATCOM would be injecting real power as well
as reactive power into the load bus, but an attempt is being made to minimise
the VA of the STATCOM. I will not consider this case here, as the objective is
to see how to support the voltage dip without any real power. The motivation
behind this restriction is that the analysis will eventually focus on the H-bridge
STATCOM without any real power storage capacity. n
The approach taken to developing the expressions for zero active power in-
jection (ZAPI) is to make the assumption that all the real or active power is
coming from the supply. Therefore no real or active power has to be supplied
by the STATCOM. This will implicitly mean that the injected current from the
STATCOM will be orthogonal to the load bus voltage V ~ L . This can be stated
mathematically as: n o n o
< ~Sin + < ~SL = 0 (3.162)
n o
where < ~Sin , the real power flowing into the load bus from the source side
n o
of the system. Note that this value is not the same as < ~Ss due to the losses
n o
in the line resistance. For this case we also have < ~Sc = 0 because of the
assumption we are making.
Remark 3.26 The main conventions used are: power flowing from a node is
positive, and current flowing from a node is positive. n
The expression for the power flowing into the load bus from the supply is7 :
~Sin = −V
~ L~I∗ (3.163)
s
and using (3.156) we can clearly write:

~∗ ~∗
~I∗ = Vs − VL (3.164)
s
~∗
Zth
which can be substituted into (3.163) to give:

!
V~∗−V ~∗
~Sin = −V~L s L
(3.165)
~∗
Z th
!
~ −V
V ∗ ~∗
~
= VL L s
(3.166)
~∗
Z th
7 The negative sign is due to the current direction convention.
52 Implementation
Expanding (3.166) using the slightly expanded phasors we can write:

2
~Sin = V̂L ∠(−β) − V̂L V̂s ∠(δ − β) (3.167)
Ẑth Ẑth
We know from (3.162) that the real power must be zero. Using (3.167) in
(3.162) and taking the real component of the complex values we can write:
V̂L V̂s V̂L2

PL = cos(δ − β) − cos β (3.168)
Ẑth Ẑth
This expression can be rearranged in order to find the angle of the source voltage
with respect to the load bus voltage for particular values of voltage magnitudes
and line impedances8 :
Ẑth PL V̂L
cos(δ − β) = + cos β (3.169)
V̂L V̂s V̂s
Ẑth PL V̂L
or cos(β − δ) = + cos β (3.170)
V̂L V̂s V̂s
Taking the arc cosine of both sides of (3.169) and (3.170) gives:
!
−1 Ẑth PL V̂L
δ = β ± cos + cos β (3.171)
V̂L V̂s V̂s
Remark 3.27 Equation (3.171) gives the angle of the source voltage with re-
spect to the load bus under the condition that all of the real power PL required
by the load is delivered by the source. Therefore no real power will be flowing
from the STATCOM. n
Remark 3.28 The ± in (3.171) indicates that there is two angles that allow
the same power to flow through the transmission line. This can be seen from
(3.172) just below. Usually the δ angle is kept below π/2, therefore we shall only
consider the negative sign in (3.171). n
As a check on this analysis, we shall assume that the line impedance is

~ th = jXth = jωLth . Under this condition we know
purely inductive – i.e. Z
from standard power systems theory that the power transmitted through an
inductive transmission line is:
V̂s V̂L
P = sin δ (3.172)
Xth
For an inductive transmission line the impedance angle β = π/2, therefore we

can write (3.170) as:
π Xth PL
cos( − δ) = (3.173)
2 V̂L V̂s
8 Don’t forget that we are also assuming the all of the real power is flowing from the source
in order to derive this expression.

and using the fact that cos( π2 − δ) = sin δ we can write:
Xth PL
sin δ = (3.174)
V̂L V̂s
or:
V̂L V̂s
PL = sin δ (3.175)
Xth
which is the same as (3.172).
The following term from (3.171):
Ẑth PL V̂L
+ cos β (3.176)
V̂L V̂s V̂s
is constrained as follows because it is inside a cos−1 function as follows:

!
Ẑth PL V̂L
0≤ + cos β ≤ 1 (3.177)
V̂L V̂s V̂s
and for a typical line 0 ≤ β ≤ π2 – i.e. resistive/inductive transmission line.

Rearranging (3.177) we can write that:
Ẑth PL
V̂s ≥ V̂L cos β + (3.178)
V̂L
Remark 3.29 Equation (3.178) gives the expression for the minimum source
voltage, for a given load bus voltage, for the system to be capable of delivering
the real power required by the load. n
Remark 3.30 If β = π/2 – i.e. inductive line, then this expression becomes:
Xth PL
V̂s ≥ (3.179)
V̂L
or
V̂s V̂L
PL ≤ (3.180)
Xth
which corresponds under the equal condition to the power equation (3.175) with
δ = π/2. In other words the transmission line must be capable of delivering the
real power under the voltage and line inductance conditions for the STATCOM
not to have to deliver any real power. n
Summary 3.5 We shall now summarise the key expressions established in this
section.
The fundamental equation for the angle of the source voltage with respect to
the load bus voltage for given voltage and line parameters is:
!
−1 Ẑth PL V̂L
δ = β − cos + cos β (3.181)
V̂L V̂s V̂s
54 Implementation
The corresponding current that must flow from the STATCOM using the δ value
obtained from the previous equation is:
V̂s V̂L
Iˆc ∠ζ = ∠(δ − β) − ∠(−β) − IˆL ∠(−θ) (3.182)
Ẑth Ẑth
and the injection apparent power of the STATCOM is ~Sc = V ~ L~I∗ . This is an
c
important value with respect to ascertaining the rating effects of supporting the
voltage dip.
The limit on the source voltage for zero active power injection from the
STATCOM is:
Ẑth PL
V̂s ≥ V̂L cos β + (3.183)
V̂L
These equations are essentially the limits that are placed on the STATCOM to
support voltage under normal operational conditions. Because the analysis has
been undertaken under steady state conditions, then the analysis is completely
valid for normal operation. n
In Haque’s [14] paper he then proceeds to presents results of the injected
apparent power from the STATCOM under various pu voltage dip scenarios.
These results show that there is a severe price to pay in relation to the rating
of the STATCOM to support voltage dips. For example to support a voltage
dip of 0.3 requires the STATCOM to operate at approximately 3.3pu apparent
power. This would mean that the converter would have to have a substantially
larger current rating.
Remark 3.31 If the dips are of short duration the large currents required may
be able to supplied via the transient overload capability of the STATCOM. n
The other interesting aspect of the Haque[14] paper is that he compares
the function of the DVR and the STATCOM with respect to supporting voltage
dips. He found that the STATCOM could support larger voltage dips under zero
active power injection conditions. However the price paid for this is the very
large apparent power rating of the STATCOM as compared to the DVR. For
example the STATCOM may require 10 times the apparent power to support
the same voltage dip.
Remark 3.32 The reason for the large rating required by the STATCOM is ob-
vious – it has to supply current into both sides of the circuit from the connection
point. It is supporting the voltage in both directions from the connection point,
whereas the DVR only supports the voltage in one direction. The rating of the
STATCOM required for the voltage support is very dependent on the fault level
of the circuit – the higher the fault level the higher the rating required. Again
the reason for this is obvious – if the impedance of the line is low then it takes
a lot more current to raise the load bus voltage above the source voltage under
voltage dip conditions. n
The main conclusion by Haque[14] is that the DVR is a more economic
solution for voltage dip support because of the lower ratings it requires. This
has to be balanced against the fact that under ZAPI conditions the voltage dips
that it can support are half the magnitude of the dips that the STATCOM can
support.
r
Vs
r
jXth Is
d r
VL
-q
r r
IL = Is
Figure 3.9: Vector diagram for the currents and voltages of an inductive trans-
mission line without compensation currents.
Remark 3.33 In effect Haque’s [14] paper is only a reiteration of the very well
known real power flow expression for transmission lines, recast into a form where
one can deduce the implications on a STATCOM connection. n
The implications of the discussion in the Haque paper can be seen in Fig-
ures 3.9 and 3.10. Figure 3.9 shows the normal operational vector diagram
for an inductive transmission line connected between two buses. In this case
the load current and the transmitted current have the same value. The source
~ s is assumed to be at rated value.
voltage V
Figure 3.10 shows the situation when the source voltage has dipped to a
lower value. The angle of the source voltage with respect to the load bus volt-
age has increased to increased to maintain the real power flowing through the
transmission line at the same level. Therefore the load current and the load
voltage are assumed to remain at the same level as the case of Figure 3.9. A
STATCOM compensator current is injected so that it is orthogonal to the load
bus voltage. This results in the transmission line current phasor rotating so
that the load bus voltage can remain the same, and at the same time Kirchoff’s
voltage law is still satisfied.
3.6.1.2 “STATCOM Controls for Operation with Unbalanced Volt-

ages” – Hochgraf and Lasseter
The Hochgraf and Lasseter paper [7] develops control strategies for a STAT-
COM operating in an unbalanced situation. This paper indicates that imbal-
ance causes significant problems for the STATCOM itself, resulting in significant
oscillations due to large negative sequence current flow into the STATCOM.
The paper develops a control strategy that takes takes into account the
unbalance in the supply voltages to generate unbalanced compensator voltages
that effectively control the negative sequence flow into the compensator and at
the same time re-balance the unbalance on the system.
Figure 3.11 shows the positive sequence single line diagram of a simple STAT-
COM connection. The voltage V ~ L is the load voltage that the positive sequence
of the STATCOM is attempting to control. This circuit is also the circuit for
the negative sequence when there is unbalance in the source voltages. Hochgraf
56 Implementation
r
Vs
r r
Is jXth Is
d
r
Ic
r
VL
-q
r
IL
Figure 3.10: Vector diagram for the currents and voltages of an inductive trans-
mission line with a voltage dip and compensation currents.
et al [7] did some analysis to show that making the compensator voltage equal
~ L where k is a gain, that as k → ∞ the negative sequence load voltage will
to k V
go to zero. However, the analysis in the paper does not appear to be correct,
so the corrected analysis appears below.
The following simple circuit expressions are derived from Figure 3.11. Ap-
plying KCL at the V ~ − node we can write:
L
~L−V
V ~s ~L
V ~L−V
V ~c
+ + =0 (3.184)
~s
Z ~L
Z ~c
Z
r r r
Zs VL Zc
r r
+ Is IL +
r r r r
Vs IL ZL Vc
Figure 3.11: Single line diagram of the STATCOM, source and load connections
that is suitable for the negative sequence currents.
which can be manipulated into:

!
~L
Z ~s
V
~L=
V (3.185)
~ sZ~ L (1−k)

~L +Z
Z ~s 1+ Z
~ c (Z
Z ~ L +Z
~ s)
Remark 3.34 Equation (3.185) shows that it is possible to regulate the load
voltage to zero by making k a very large negative number, regardless of the
values of the impedances in the circuit. If the variables in (3.185) represent
the negative sequence voltages, the same result still holds. Since the nega-
tive voltage being minimised is the negative sequence voltage, then this can be
achieved without changing the positive sequence voltage. Consequently the V ~L
voltage will become balanced if unbalanced. n
Remark 3.35 The strategy suggested by (3.185) is very dependent on being able
to detect the negative sequence voltages in a rapid fashion. In most cases it is the
sensing of the negative sequence that is the main limitation on the performance
of this technique. n
*********************
In the paragraph below there is a reference to presentation of material
in a previous section. At the time of writing this this material has
not been included in the report.
*********************
One of the key parts of this paper was the information in the appendix
on how to extract the positive and negative sequence components from the
unbalanced voltage waveforms. The technique used will not be presented here
as it has been presented in Section??.
The other part of the paper that was of relevance is the control strategy
presented, which consisted of positive and negative sequence controllers. The
controllers for both sequences were identical, and their control voltage outputs
are added together to form the desired control voltage.
Remark 3.36 The control strategy generates the voltage that must appear across
the impedance between the STATCOM and the line. This voltage together with
this impedance forms a technique of limiting the current flowing. The important
point is that the output is a voltage, and therefore the angle of this voltage with
respect to the line voltage is going to be crucial in obtaining good performance.
The current limit accuracy also is very sensitive to knowledge of the angle of
the system voltages. This would appear to be a weakness of this technique. n
3.6.2 Control Strategy Development

This section will investigate the theoretical development of control strategies for
supporting unbalanced source voltages. Some of the main issues to be addressed
are:
1. We have a STATCOM, which is delivering positive sequence, negative
sequence, or both currents to the grid, and is subject to positive and
58 Implementation
negative sequence voltages at its terminals. The issue in this case is to

investigate the phase real power under this condition, and to devise a
control strategy to allow the phase powers to be balanced. This work is a
generalisation of that presented in Section 3.3.
2. The development of a control strategy for re-balancing the supply when

there is a balanced load and unbalanced source voltages.
3. Investigation of strategies of re-balancing the supply when there is an

unbalanced load and unbalanced source voltages.
*********************
Need to determine if this is possible.
*********************
3.6.2.1 Phase Power Balance with Positive and Negative Sequence

Currents and Voltages
As a precursor to the development of re-balancing strategies we have to inves-

tigate the operation of the H-bridge STATCOM under the condition that it is
being subjected to unbalanced voltages at its terminals – i.e. at the point of
common coupling (PCC). Specifically we are interested in controlling the powers
in the individual phase legs of the H-bridge under the conditions of unbalanced
voltages on its terminals, and the STATCOM sources or sinking positive and
negative sequence currents. Under balanced conditions the power in all the
phase legs can be controlled using normal P Q based control strategies, but this
does not work under unbalanced conditions. In the following development we
shall be assuming that the unbalance has occurred due to a single line to ground
fault (SLGF) somewhere back in the system. This means that one of the phase
voltages in the Thevenin equivalent of the system has a smaller voltage than the
other two phases. In addition to this, the STATCOM is assumed to be operat-
ing in current source mode, and both positive and negative sequence currents
are present.
Remark 3.37 The analysis below implicitly assumes that the line impedances
are small relative to the load impedances. Therefore the line voltages at the
source are essentially the line voltages at the PCC. This assumption simplifies
the Matlab scripts used since the line voltage drop due to the load does not need
to be account for in terms of the voltage at the PCC. This assumption essentially
neglects any differential phase shifts that may occur due to unbalanced loads. It
should not make any difference to the validity of the results as the voltage at the
PCC is general in nature in the analysis. n
Figure 3.12 shows the physical connection of the STATCOM to the network.
The source voltages are unbalanced, and the load may or may not be balanced.
Point of common coupling

Unbalanced (PCC)
Source r Line impedances
Ics
r
IcL
r Balanced/
r IbL Unbalanced
Ibs r load
jXs IaL
r r
Vcs Vbs r jXc
Ias
r r r
Ic Ib Ia
r
Vas
STATCOM
Figure 3.12: STATCOM connection to an unbalanced source voltage.
Some definitions. The source voltages are defined as follows:
~ as = V̂as ∠0
V (3.186)

~ −2π
Vbs = V̂bs ∠ (3.187)
3

~ −4π
Vcs = V̂cs ∠ (3.188)
3
where in general V̂as 6= V̂bs 6= V̂cs . Note that we are assuming that the normal
120◦ phase angle difference is maintained in this development.
The line-to-line voltages at the terminals of the STATCOM (i.e. at the PCC)
are denoted as follows:
~ ab = V̂ab ∠θab
V (3.189)
~ bc = V̂bc ∠θbc
V (3.190)
~ ca = V̂ca ∠θca
V (3.191)
Remark 3.38 Equations (3.189)–(3.191) use generic phase angles since the
phase voltage magnitudes differences mean that the normal 120◦ angle does not
hold. n
The phase voltages at the terminals of the STATCOM that are determined
from the line voltages, and are denoted as follows:
~ a = V̂a ∠θa
V (3.192)
~ b = V̂b ∠θb
V (3.193)
~ c = V̂c ∠θc
V (3.194)
The positive, negative sequence STATCOM terminal line voltages are defined
60 Implementation
as follows.9 Firstly the positive sequence voltages:
~ abp = V̂lp ∠θabpv

V (3.195)

~ 2π
Vbcp = V̂lp ∠ θabpv − (3.196)
3

~ 4π
Vcap = V̂lp ∠ θabpv − (3.197)
3
Similarly the negative sequence voltages:
~ abn = V̂ln ∠θabnv

V (3.198)

~ bcn = V̂ln ∠ θabnv + 2π
V (3.199)
3

~ can = V̂ln ∠ θabnv + 4π
V (3.200)
3
Similarly one can define the positive, negative and zero sequence STATCOM
phase voltages. Note that the STATCOM is wye connected. Firstly the positive
sequence STATCOM phase voltages:
~ ap = V̂p ∠θpv
V (3.201)

~ 2π
Vbp = V̂p ∠ θpv − (3.202)
3

~ 4π
Vcp = V̂p ∠ θpv − (3.203)
3
and similarly the negative sequence STATCOM phase voltages:
~ an = V̂n ∠θnv
V (3.204)

~ bn = V̂n ∠ θnv + 2π
V (3.205)
3

~ cn = V̂n ∠ θnv + 4π
V (3.206)
3
and finally the zero sequence voltages are:
~ a,b,c,0 = V̂0 ∠α0

V (3.207)
Remark 3.39 Note that the wye connection is being targeted for this devel-
opment because the zero sequence voltage injection in this case explicitly con-
tains the voltage magnitude. In the previous analysis of the zero sequence volt-
age injection when compensating for unbalanced loads, as summarised in Sum-
mary 3.4, a balanced voltage magnitude appears in the expression. If the voltage
is no longer balanced a different expression must be used. If the phase angles are
also unbalanced, this further invalidates the previous expression. The following
expressions address these two issues. n
9 The cannot be any zero sequence voltages in the line-to-line voltages.
Using similar nomenclature we can write the positive and negative sequence
currents flowing in the STATCOM as follows:
~Iap = Iˆp ∠θpi (3.208)

~Ibp = Iˆp ∠ θpi − 2π (3.209)
3

~Icp = Iˆp ∠ θpi − 4π
(3.210)
3
and similarly the negative sequence STATCOM phase currents:
~Ian = Iˆn ∠θni (3.211)

~Ibn = Iˆn ∠ θni + 2π (3.212)
3

~Icn = Iˆn ∠ θni + 4π (3.213)
3
We are interested in the situation where there is a SLGF in the system.

This will manifest itself at the Thevenin equivlent neutral connected wye source
with positive, negative and zero sequence components in the phase voltages.
The SLGF will be characterised by one phase having a lower voltage magnitude
than the other two phases. However, for the analysis here we will assume that
the phase waveforms still exhibit 120◦ phase shift.
It is a well known textbook material that even though there is in general
a zero sequence voltage present in the symmetrical components of the source
phase voltages, there will be no zero sequence components in the line voltages
[4, 16]. Therefore the line voltages at the PCC will not contain any zero sequence
components.
It shall be assumed that the STATCOM is initially operating as three wye
connected current sources. Therefore if the voltages at the PCC are balanced
then the star point of the STATCOM would be at the same potential as the
star point of the source. However, under unbalance conditions the star point of
the STATCOM will no longer be at the same potential of the source, but will
instead have a sinusoidal component on it.
Remark 3.40 It should be again emphasised that relative to the STATCOM

star point there will be no zero sequence components in the STATCOM phase
voltages. Therefore the zero sequence in the source has disappeared because of
the conversion from phase to line and back to phase voltages. This means that
the resultant STATCOM phase voltages are composed only of the positive and
negative sequence voltages converted from the line voltages. n
Remark 3.41 The main implication from the previous remark is that the volt-
ages seen on the phases at the STATCOM will be different from the phase voltage
seen on the phases of the unbalanced source. n
The standard power expressions for the phase powers with a wye connected,
62 Implementation
no neutral10 , and using symmetrical components from Chapter 1 are [4]:
~Sa = V~ a~I∗ = (V
~ a0 + V
~ ap + V~ an )(~I∗ + ~I∗ ) (3.214)
a ap an
~Sb = V ~ b~I∗ = (V
~ a0 + a2 V
~ ap + aV~ an )((a2 )∗~I∗ + a∗~I∗ ) (3.215)
b ap an
~Sc = V
~ c~I∗ = (V
~ a0 + aV
~ ap + a2 V~ an )(a∗~I∗ + (a2 )∗~I∗ ) (3.216)
c ap an
2π
where a = ej 3 .
Let us expand (3.214) as follows:
~Sa = (V̂0 ∠α0 + V̂p ∠θpv + V̂n ∠θnv )(Iˆp ∠(−θpi ) + Iˆn ∠(−θni )) (3.217)
= V̂0 Iˆp ∠(α0 − θpi ) + V̂0 Iˆn ∠(α0 − θni ) + V̂p Iˆp ∠(θpv − θpi ) + · · ·
V̂p Iˆn ∠(θpv − θni ) + V̂n Iˆp ∠(θnv − θpi ) + V̂n Iˆn ∠(θnv − θni ) (3.218)
To control the voltages on the individual phase legs of the H-bridge STAT-
COM we are interested in the real power component of the complex power:
Pa = <{~Sa } = V̂0 Iˆp cos(α0 − θpi ) + V̂0 Iˆn cos(α0 − θni ) + · · ·

V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi ) + · · ·
V̂p Iˆp cos(θpv − θpi ) + V̂n Iˆn cos(θnv − θni ) (3.219)
Remark 3.42 The last two terms in equation (3.219) are the normal average
real power expressions for the positive and negative sequence components. These
are the terms that the normal P Q control can control. The other terms involving
a mixture of positive and negative sequence components are terms that lead to
the mismatch of powers in the phases. n
Similarly the complex power equations for ~Sb and ~Sc can be expanded and
the real component extracted. The manipulations are tedious but straight for-
ward, and will not be repeated here. The resultant real power expressions are:
4π 2π
Pb = V̂0 Iˆp cos(α0 − θpi − ) + V̂0 Iˆn cos(α0 − θni − ) + ···
3 3
2π 2π
V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni + ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi − ) + ···
3 3
2π 4π
Pc = V̂0 Iˆp cos(α0 − θpi − ) + V̂0 Iˆn cos(α0 − θni − ) + ···
3 3
2π 2π
V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni − ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi + ) + ···
3 3
If one calculates the addition of these powers then one can show:
PT = Pa + Pb + Pc = 3V̂p Iˆp cos(θpv − θpi ) + 3V̂n Iˆn cos(θnv − θni ) (3.222)

10 Note there is no zero sequence current in this case.
which is the correct expression, and is partial verification of the correctness of

the above expressions.
Given that the V̂p Iˆp and V̂n Iˆn terms are the terms being controlled by the
main balanced control algorithm, then the terms that are of particular interest
from the balancing viewpoint are those remaining after these terms are removed
from equations (3.219)–(3.221).
Since the phase power terms (other than the V̂p Iˆp and V̂n Iˆn ) terms must
add to be zero, then there are only two independent equations out of the three
available. The zero sequence voltage in equations (3.219)–(3.221) will normally
have a value of zero (as mentioned earlier). However if one intentionally injects
a zero sequence voltage, then one has two degrees of freedom (the zero voltage
amplitude and angle) and two independent equations to solve to make two of the
residual power equal to zero (which as mentioned means that the other phase
residual power is also zero).
Expanding (3.219) omitting the V̂p Iˆp and V̂n Iˆn terms, and using the trig
relation cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y we can write:
V̂0 Iˆp [cos α0 cos θpi + sin α0 sin θpi ] + V̂0 Iˆn [cos α0 cos θni + sin α0 sin θni ] + · · ·
+ V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi ) = 0 (3.223)
and similarly for (3.220) we can write:
4π 4π
V̂0 Iˆp [cos α0 cos(θpi + ) + sin α0 sin(θpi + )] + · · ·
3 3
2π 2π
V̂0 Iˆn [cos α0 cos(θni + ) + sin α0 sin(θni + )] + · · ·
3 3
2π 2π
V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni + ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi − ) = 0 (3.224)
3 3
Equations (3.223) and (3.224) can be rearranged to give:
V̂0 [Iˆp cos θpi + Iˆn cos θni ] cos α0 + V̂0 [Iˆp sin θpi + Iˆn sin θni ] sin α0 =
− [V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi )] (3.225)
and
4π 2π
V̂0 [Iˆp cos(θpi + ) + Iˆn cos(θni + )] cos α0 + · · ·
3 3
4π 2π
V̂0 [Iˆp sin(θpi + ) + Iˆn sin(θni + )] sin α0 =
3 3
2π 2π
− [V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni + ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi − )] (3.226)
3 3
Summary 3.6 The Pa and Pb residual expressions can therefore be written as:
V̂0 k1 cos α0 + V̂0 k2 sin α0 = −k3 (3.227)

V̂0 k4 cos α0 + V̂0 k5 sin α0 = −k6 (3.228)
64 Implementation
where:
k1 = Iˆp cos θpi + Iˆn cos θni (3.229)

k2 = Iˆp sin θpi + Iˆn sin θni (3.230)
k3 = V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi ) (3.231)
4π 2π
k4 = Iˆp cos(θpi + ) + Iˆn cos(θni + ) (3.232)
3 3
4π 2π
k5 = Iˆp sin(θpi + ) + Iˆn sin(θni + ) (3.233)
3 3
2π 2π
k6 = V̂p Iˆn cos(θpv − θni + ) + V̂n Iˆp cos(θnv − θpi − ) (3.234)
3 3
Clearly equations (3.227) and (3.228) can be solved simultaneously for V̂0 and
α0 . After a little manipulation it is possible to show that the solutons are:
k6 k1 − k3 k4
tan α0 = (3.235)
k3 k5 − k6 k2
−k3
V̂0 = (3.236)
k1 cos α0 + k2 sin α0
or
−k6
V̂0 = (3.237)
k4 cos α0 + k5 sin α0
The choice of equation (3.236)or (3.237) for the V̂0 expression depends on the
size of the denominator. Choose the expression with the largest denominator, so
that the calculation is better conditioned. To find α0 use a four quadrant tan−1
function. n
In order to test this function a Matlabr script was written to implement the
above equations, which appears in Appendix C.3.4. This script allows a phase
imbalance to be specified in source voltages. Symmetrical components are then
generated for the phase voltages, and then these are converted to line-to-line
voltages. These are then in turn converted back to phase voltages for both the
positive and negative sequences. These result phase symmetrical components
are then added together to give the phase phasors applied to the STATCOM
terminals. As mentioned several times previously, these phase symmetrical com-
ponents no longer contain any zero sequence components.
Example 3.1 Consider the situation when the V̂a = 0.8 × V̂b and V̂c . The
specific values for the source voltages are:
~ as = 0.8V̂s ∠0
V (3.238)

~ bs = V̂s ∠ − 2π
V (3.239)
3

~ cs = V̂s ∠ − 4π
V (3.240)
3
where V̂s = 100.0 in this example. Carrying out a process of symmetrical com-
ponents, converting the phase voltages to their relevant positive, negative and
zero sequence values, then the the equivalent line values, and then back to the
phase values for the STATCOM. Therefore the positive and negative sequence
a-phase voltages at the STATCOM are found to be:
~ ap = 93.333∠0
V (3.241)
~ an = 6.6667∠π
V (3.242)
~0=0
V (3.243)
The compensator is sinking a positive sequence a-phase current of value ~Iap =

30.0∠(θpv − π2 ). The π2 phase angle means that the compensator is only attempt-
ing the supply VArs to the network, and the is no positive sequence real power
flow on a three phase basis to the STATCOM. The negative sequence current in
this example is zero.
Under these conditions the normal three phase power expressions are applied
and one gets the following values for each of the phase powers:
~Sa = −3.0265e − 013 + 2.6000e + 003i (3.244)

~Sb = −1.7321e + 002 + 2.9000e + 003i (3.245)
~Sc = 1.7321e + 002 + 2.9000e + 003i (3.246)
As can be seen from these expressions ~Sa +~Sb +~Sc = 3.6948e−013+8.4000e+003i

– i.e. the real power is zero in a three phase sense. However as can be seen from
equations (3.245) and (3.246) these phase powers are not zero. If this was im-
plemented for a H-bridge system the b-phase capacitors would be charging, and
the c-phase discharging.
If we apply expressions (3.227) and (3.228) then the zero sequence compo-
nent in the power expressions can be set to V ~ 0 = 6.6667∠π. If the phase power
expressions are calculated with this sequence added in we get the following ex-
pressions for the phase powers:
~Sa = 6.4869e − 014 + 2.4000e + 003i (3.247)

~Sb = 2.2737e − 013 + 3.0000e + 003i (3.248)
~Sc = −2.2737e − 013 + 3.0000e + 003i (3.249)
and ~Sa + ~Sb + ~Sc = 6.4869e − 014 + 8.4000e + 003i. Therefore the individual
phase powers are zero as well as the total three phase power. Figure 3.13 shows
the phasors for this example. As can be seen without zero sequence voltage in-
jection the b-phase and c-phase currents are not orthogonal to the phase voltages
~ b and V
V ~ c . However when V~ 0 is added to the voltages the new values of the
three phase voltage are orthogonal to the currents, and therefore the average real
phase powers are zero. The new resultant voltages are denoted with the “new”
subscript.
One can set the negative sequence current phasor to an arbitrary value, and
the positive sequence phasor to compensate for any three phase power from the
negative sequence, and similar results can be obtained. Therefore it is possible
to solve for the zero sequence regardless of the positive and negative sequence
voltages under this condition. n
66 Implementation
r
r V0
Vcnew r
Vc
r
Vcp
r r
Icp
r
Ibp Vcn
r
r Va r
Van r r Vap
V0 Van
r
Vbn
r
r Vanew
Vbp r
r
r
Vb Iap
Vbn
r
Vbnew r
V0
Figure 3.13: Phasor diagram of unbalance voltage example.
3.6.2.2 Unbalanced Source Voltage, Balanced Load

This is an artificial situation, in that one could not formulate a control strategy
based on this approach, since there cannot be a guarantee that the load will
remain balanced. However, it is interesting to consider as it demontrates the
STATCOMs ability to re-balance the PCC voltages with only a slight extension
to the control strategies presented for the unbalanced current case.
Remark 3.43 Simulation studies of this particular control strategy are pre-
sented in Section 4.4.1. n
Figure 3.14 shows the conceptual approach to this strategy.11 The basis of
the strategy can be understood with the benefit of Figure 3.14. If the load is
balanced then the only way that there can be a negative sequence component
in the load current is if there is a negative sequence voltage at the point of
common coupling. This negative sequence voltage can be eliminated if the
negative sequence voltage is totally dropped across the system line impedance
jXs . As can be seen from Figure 3.14 if the amplitude of the load side negative
sequence is present then its value is integrated and this values is used to scale
the current references to the STATCOM. The current references are themselves
the negative sequence load currents. The currents are made negative so the the
STATCOM is absorbing the negative sequence currents.
Remark 3.44 The fact the STATCOM is absorbing a scaled version of the
negative sequence load current means that the STATCOM effectively looks like a
11 This explanation is repeated in Section 4.4.1.
jXs
PCC
r Balanced
Vs
r r r r r r Load
Is = Ips + Ins IL = IpL + InL
Symmetrical
Components
Generation
-(K p IˆnL + K i ò IˆnL )
IˆnL
-
+
S
r
InL 0
-IˆnL
STATCOM ´ PI
Figure 3.14: Single line diagram of conceptual re-balancing of unbalanced volt-

ages when there is a balanced load.
virtual load with the same phase angle as the true load. The current magnitude
drawn by the STATCOM increases (due to the integral action of the controller)
until the effective impedance magnitude of the STATCOM is very low (ideally
zero). Therefore almost all of the negative sequence voltage is dropped across
the line impedance. n
Remark 3.45 The other important observation is that if the load is resistive in
nature, then the negative sequence current is in phase with the negative sequence
voltage. Therefore the STATCOM will be absorbing negative sequence three
phase real power. This would mean that the capacitor voltages would increase
as a result of this absorption of power. It may be that it is more sensible for
the current being absorbed by the STATCOM to be 90◦ phase shifted from the
negative sequence voltage. n
Another interesting aspect of the strategy is that it works regardless of the

angle of the load. If, for example, the load is a balanced resistive load, then in
order to drop the entire negative sequence voltage present in the source voltages
across the line impedance, one has to have a negative sequence current flowing
through the line impedance that is π/2 radians phase shifted from the negative
sequence voltages – i.e. a pure inductive current since the load side of the line
inductance is effectively zero volts. However, the load current of the load is in-
phase with the negative sequence voltage, and it is a scaled version of this current
that is forming the reference current for the STATCOM. This dilemma can be
explained by realising that as the effective parallel impedance of the STATCOM
with the load decreases as the STATCOM compensating current increases, the
remaining negative sequence voltage converges to the point where it is essentially
90◦ out of phase with the negative sequence source voltage. Therefore the load
current is still in-phase with the remnant load negative sequence voltage, and
at the same time an inductive negative sequence current now flows through the
68 Implementation
line impedance.12 Similar arguments can be carried out regardless of the phase
of the load.
Remark 3.46 Clearly the line impedance from the source to the PCC has a
large effect on the magnitude of the current required to drop the negative sequence
voltage to zero. If one is trying to compensate for a single phase voltage dip,
then the impedance between the fault location and the PCC is important with
respect to the magnitude of the compensator current. n
*********************
Need to calculate the STATCOM rating implications of supporting a
dip.
*********************
The other important issue is the phase powers of the STATCOM. In Sec-
tion 3.2.1 the expressions were derived for the zero sequence current required
to make the individual phase powers of a Delta connected STATCOM equal at
zero. When the voltage balance at the PCC has been established these same
expressions would still apply since the only significant voltage present at this
point (which is the voltage across the STATCOM), is the positive sequence volt-
age. One difference between the two situations is that the current taken by the
STATCOM would be 180◦ out of phase with the currents required for the load
current re-balance application which was the subject of the previous analysis.
However the expressions summarised in Summary 3.3 on page 33 were derived
using a generic phase angle for the negative sequence current, and therefore are
application to this situation.
An alternative control strategy is to use the negative sequence voltage to
drive the feedback process. If the load is balanced and resistive, then logically
this is equivalent to the previous strategy. One advantage of this approach is
that is can be used in situations where the load is not balanced. This will be
explored in the Section 3.6.2.3 below.
Remark 3.47 If the compensator is operated so that the negative sequence cur-
rent into the compensator is in phase (or 180◦ out of phase) with the negative
sequence voltage, and the negative sequence voltage is used to derive the refer-
ence currents, then the feedback control does not seem to work well. The feedback
gains have to be set very low. If any reasonable gain is used, the compensator
currents become unstable. Operation with a 90◦ phase difference between the
negative sequence voltage and current (which means that there is no three phase
negative sequence power flowing into or out of the STATCOM) appears to make
the control system more stable, and higher gains can be used. n
3.6.2.3 Unbalanced Source Voltage, Unbalanced Load

The more general situation is when there is an unbalanced voltage and an un-
balanced load. In this case the presence of the unbalanced load means that
detection of unbalanced currents on the load side of the STATCOM connection
12 This is of course a very small resistive component in the line current due to the small
remenant negative sequence voltage across the load.

can no longer be used to detect the presence of unbalanced voltages at the PCC.
Similarly, detection of unbalanced voltage at the PCC is not indicative of unbal-
anced source voltages, since if the load in unbalanced then unbalanced currents
through balanced line impedances will lead to unbalanced voltages. Similarly
there are other combinations when the line impedances are also unbalanced.
70 Implementation
Chapter 4
Simulation Studies
This chapter reports on a variety of simulations on the use of STATCOMs in

unbalanced situations. In addition, it also considers the issues of phase real
power balancing that are so important in H-bridge based STATCOM systems.
The simulations carried out in this section are conceptual in nature – i.e. the
simulations do not simulate the H-Bridge cascade converter, but instead assume
that it can be adequately modeled by an ideal controlled current source.
The remainder of this chapter is organised as follows. The next section
considers the situation where one is implementing a STATCOM using Wye
and Delta connected current sources that derive their reference values from
the negative sequence currents drawn from the load. The following section then
considers simulation studies from Delta and Wye connected H-bridge systems
with zero sequence current and voltage injection respectively.
4.1 Wye Connected Current Sources

We shall initially consider the situation of three current sources wye connected to
implement a STATCOM that is trying to compensate for negative sequence cur-
rents in the load. The overall strategy is to use the theory of negative sequences
(see Chapter 1 to find the symmetrical components of the load current, and
then to feed the negative sequence component into the wye connected current
sources. By this process the current sources will supply the negative sequence
component required by the load, and hence the source side of the compensator
connected will only see the balanced positive sequence component.
The schematic of the Saberr simulation is shown in Figure 4.1. In the
particular case shown the load consists of Za = 1MΩ + jω(0.01), Zb = 5 +
jω(0.01), and Zc = 5 + jω(0.01). In other words phase ‘a’ is effectively open
circuited.
In addition to the wye connected load with the parameters above, there is
also a wye connection of resistors, each 10MΩ, which form an artificial neutral
which other voltages are measured relative to.
Figure 4.2 shows the structure of the wye connected current source compen-
sator used in the simulation. Note that three current sources are used, and the
star point of the current sources is connected to the star point of the source
voltage. If there is not a connection (at least through a resistor) here then the
72
current sources.
Symmetrical Components Symmetrical Components
Load side of PCC source side of PCC
Ia_ampl Ia_ampl
Est_amplitude_0 Ia_pos_ampl Ia_pos_ampl est_ia_src_amp Ia_pos_ampl
Ia_angle Ia_angle
This file is designed to test the extraction of symmetrical
ia_phase Ia_pos_angle ia_phase_src Ia_pos_angle
Ia_pos_angle
Ib_ampl Ib_ampl
components from the data that is output from the
Karimi−Ghartemani signal extraction algorithms. Est_amplitude_120 Ib_pos_ampl Ib_pos_ampl est_ib_src_amp Ib_pos_ampl
Ib_angle Ib_angle
ib_phase Ib_pos_angle ib_phase_src Ib_pos_angle

Ib_pos_angle
Ic_ampl Ic_ampl
The file uses the symmetrical components extracted as the Est_amplitude_240 Ic_pos_ampl Ic_pos_ampl est_ic_src_amp Ic_pos_ampl
Ic_angle Ic_angle
symmetrical_components1 symmetrical_components2
Ic_pos_angle Ic_pos_angle
currents that are injected into the phases via current sources. ic_phase Ic_pos_angle
ic_phase_src
t t
time Ia_neg_ampl Ia_neg_ampl time Ia_neg_ampl

The simulation seems to work OK. freq freq
Base_freq Ia_neg_angle Base_freq Ia_neg_angle
Ia_neg_angle
Ib_neg_ampl Ib_neg_ampl Ib_neg_ampl
Ib_neg_angle Ib_neg_angle
Ib_neg_angle
Ic_neg_ampl Ic_neg_ampl Ic_neg_ampl
Ic_neg_angle Ic_neg_angle
Ic_neg_angle
iap iapiap_src
iap
c_dc ib phase info ibp ibpibp_src

ibp
Base_freq
c_dc 314.159265359 Est_freq
Base_freq icp icpicp_src
Est_freq_120 icp
Initial_phase
−2.0943951024 c_dc Est_phase ian ianian_src
Est_phase_120 ian
Karimi−
15
Initial_amplitude ibn ibnibn_src
Ghartemani ibn
c_time
time PLL2 Est_amplitude icn icnicn_src
PLL Est_amplitude_120 icn
Signal_input
Est_waveform phase_iac
Est_waveform_120
phase_ibc
Current
phase_ibc to
Control
l2
phase_b Interface Compensator
Current i2var
to l:0.001
Control ib_source_side r:0.01
Interface
i2var
Base_freq Filters required in order

c_dc Base_freq Est_freq
Est_freq_0
Initial_phase
to overcome numerical est_ic_src_amp
0.0 Est_phase
Est_phase_0
c_dc
Karimi− problems with the
Initial_amplitude simulation
15 lag
l1
Ghartemani var2i var2i
cp cp
phase_iac
PLL1 Est_amplitude Control Control
Current l:0.001 Current Est_amplitude_0 K cccs_4p cccs_4p
to to
r:0.01 Signal_input
PLL ian k:1 k:1
to to (s/w) + 1 Current cn Current cn
Control ia_source_side Control Est_waveform
gnd gnd
Interface phase_a Interface k:−1 k:−1
i2var i2var
0.01
0.01
ia phase info Est_waveform_0 Phase b Phase a 10e6 10e6
lag
ref:vb ref:va
amplitude:100 amplitude:100 K
frequency:50 frequency:50 5 1e6 ibn
phase:−120 phase:0.0 (s/w) + 1
gnd
phase:−240
Artifical neutral
frequency:50
amplitude:100
gnd lag var2i
0.01
Phase c Control cn
K to k:1
icn cccs_4p
(s/w) + 1 Current
10e6 cp
k:−1 phase_icc
phase_c
i2var 5
ic_source_side
Current
l3 to
Control
phase_icc Interface
l:0.001
r:0.01
Current
to
Control
Interface
i2var ic phase info
Base_freq
c_dc Base_freq Est_freq Est_freq_240
Initial_phase
−4.1887902048
va amplitude and phase
Est_phase
Est_phase_240
c_dc
Karimi− Base_freq
Initial_amplitude Est_freq_va
15
Ghartemani Initial_phase
PLL3 0
Est_amplitude Est_amplitude_240 Est_phase
PLL Karimi− Est_phase_va
Signal_input c_dc
Source side current sensors Est_waveform Initial_amplitude
Est_waveform_240 100
Ghartemani
Base_freq
c_dc Base_freq Est_freq PLL4 Est_amplitude Est_ampl_va
+ Voltage
Initial_phase phase_iac Signal_input
PLL
0 to
Est_phase Control Est_waveform
est_ia_src_phase − Est_waveform_va
c_dc
Karimi− Interface
v2var
Initial_amplitude
15
Ghartemani
PLL5 Est_amplitude
PLL est_ia_src_amp
Signal_input
ia_source_side Est_waveform
Current phases relative to va at load

Base_freq
diff
Initial_phase Est_phase_0 ia_phase
−2.0943951024 Est_phase
est_ib_src_phase
c_dc
Karimi− Source current phases relative to va
Initial_amplitude diff
15
Ghartemani
Est_phase_va
PLL6 Est_amplitude
PLL est_ib_src_amp est_ia_src_phase ia_phase_src
Signal_input
diff
ib_source_side Est_waveform
Est_phase_120 ib_phase
Est_phase_va
diff
Base_freq Est_phase_va
c_dc Base_freq Est_freq est_ib_src_phase ib_phase_src
diff
Initial_phase
−4.1887902048 Est_phase
Karimi− est_ic_src_phase Est_phase_240 ic_phase
c_dc
Initial_amplitude Est_phase_va
15
Ghartemani
diff
PLL7 Est_amplitude
PLL est_ic_src_amp
Signal_input est_ic_src_phase ic_phase_src
Est_phase_va
ic_source_side Est_waveform
Est_phase_va
Figure 4.1: Schematic of the Saberr simulation used for the Wye connected
Simulation Studies
4.1 Wye Connected Current Sources 73
simulation cannot locate a DC operating point to start.
phase_iac
phase_ibc
Compensator
Filters required in order

problems with the
simulation lag var2i var2i
cp cp
K Control
to
cccs_4p Control
to
cccs_4p
ian (s/w) + 1 Current k:1 Current k:1
cn cn
gnd gnd
k:−1 k:−1
lag
K
ibn (s/w) + 1
Artifical neutral gnd
lag var2i
cn
K Control
to k:1
icn (s/w) + 1 Current cccs_4p
cp
phase_icc
k:−1

Base_freq
Est_freq
Est_freq_va
Initial_phase
Karimi− Est_phase
Initial_amplitude Ghartemani
PLL
PLL4 Est_amplitude
Signal_input
Figure 4.2: Wye connected current sources in Saberr simulation.
Est_waveform
Figure 4.3 show the main result of the operation of this circuit. As can be
seen there is a negative sequence load current of approximately 8 Amp ampli-
tude, and on the source side of the compensator this current is very small (< 0.2
Amp on expanded scale) – i.e the compensator current sources are supplying
the negative sequence into to compensator connection point, so that to the left
of this point (i.e. the source side of the connection point) the only current left
is the positive sequence. The positive sequence currents on the load and source
sides of the compensator are the same, as can be seen from Figure 4.4. This is
the expected result as the compensator is only compensating for the negative
sequence.
The final proof that the supply is now symmetrical can be seen from Fig-
ure 4.5 which shows the phase currents into the load and the phase currents on
the source side of the compensator. Note that the currents on the source side
are now balanced three phase currents.
The final plot of particular interest is the real power in each of the sources
and the three phase total real power into the compensator. Figure 4.6 shows
the relevant plots. As can be seen from this figure, one of the sources has a
average positive real power, another a negative real power, and one an average
zero real power. The total three phase power oscillates (as predicted in (1.63)),
and has an average value of zero.
Remark 4.1 The presence of average real power in two of the current sources
is a significant problem if the current sources are implemented using H-bridge
cascaded converters, since it would mean that the inverter capacitors in these
legs would continually increase or decrease in voltage. This would proclude the
H-bridge being used unless a technique can be found to eliminate this. n
74 Simulation Studies
Negative sequence current − load and source
(−) : t(s)
10.0
icn_src
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
icn
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ibn_src
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ibn
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ian_src
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ian
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
0.375 0.4 0.425 0.45 0.475 0.5 0.525 0.55 0.575 0.6 0.625 0.65 0.675 0.7
t(s)
Figure 4.3: Negative sequence currents on the load and source sides of the
compensator connection point.
Positive sequence current − load and source
(−) : t(s)
20.0
icp_src
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
icp
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
ibp_src
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
ibp
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
iap_src
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
iap
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
t(s)
Figure 4.4: Positive sequence current on the load and source sides of the com-
pensator connection point.
4.1 Wye Connected Current Sources 75
Load and source side currents with open cct phase’a’
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ic_source_side
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ib_source_side
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ia_source_side
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
phase_c_ld
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
phase_b_ld
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
phase_a_ld
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4
t(s)
Figure 4.5: Phase current on the load and source side of the wye connected
compensator.
Current Source Powers
(W) : t(s)
1.5k
3phase_power
1.0k
500.0
(W)
0.0
−500.0
−1.0k
−1.5k
(W) : t(s)
600.0
power(cccs_4p.cccs_4p4)
400.0
200.0
(W)
0.0
−200.0
−400.0
−600.0
(W) : t(s)
200.0
0.0
−200.0
(W)
−400.0
−600.0
−800.0
(W) : t(s)
800.0
600.0
400.0
(W)
200.0
0.0
−200.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t(s)
Figure 4.6: Power in Wye connected current sources with no zero sequence
voltage injection.
4.2 Delta Connected Current Sources

Most of the conventional literature on passive compensation networks is based on
the Delta configuration, since the compensation network can be considered to be
in parallel with a Delta connected load. This makes power factor compensation
easy to understand – just make the Delta admittance the negative of the load
admittance to make the effective load real (this is developed in Chapter 2.
Therefore it is also logical to consider Delta connected current source networks.
In Peng’s paper [10] he uses a technique based on the analysis derived in
2.2.2 to generate the current references for the delta connected current sources.
In order to do this one has to identify the load so that the passive compensation
network can be derived. From this network, and measurements of the line to
line voltages one can calculate the currents that must be flowing into the passive
components. It is these current values that are used as the references for the
delta current sources. The fact that the current sources are simulating reactive
passive components means that there can be no average real power flowing into
the current sources. This allows implementation using a cascade H-bridge based
converter.
Remark 4.2 One of the major pitfalls of the Peng technique is that it relies
on identification of the load to firstly calculate the passive components. There-
fore there is no feedback process involved in the elimination of the negative se-
quences. If the load is evaluated incorrectly then the compensation network and
corresponding currents will be incorrect. n
If one simply sets up a delta circuit composed of current sources, with the
current references for these sources being such that the line currents equal the
required negative sequence currents, then one has the same problem as the
wye connected current sources – two of the current sources will involve the
absorption or generation of average real power, and one of the current sources
has no average real power. For all three phases, as was the case with the wye
connected current sources, there is no net average real power being generated
or absorbed.
However, [10] showed that it is possible to achieve no average real power
absorbed or generated individually from any of the three current sources. How-
ever, from a control perspective, his technique is not very good. This observation
was the basis for the development of a technique of circulating a zero sequence
current around the delta loop to balance the power in the current sources to
achieve the same result as in [10].
The zero sequence current required to make sure that the average real power
in each source individually is zero was derived in Section 3.2.1. A simulation
was set up to test the performance of this approach. The Saberr simulation is
shown in Figure 4.7.
The delta current source connection used in the simulations is shown in
Figure 4.8.
The load used in the simulations was the same as that used for the wye
connected case; Za = 1MΩ + jω(0.01), Zb = 5 + jω(0.01), and Zc = 5 +
jω(0.01). The simulations were set up so that for the first 0.2 seconds there is
no compensation applied. Then at 0.2 seconds compensation for the negative
sequence currents is applied, but there is no zero sequence current applied.
At 0.5 seconds we have negative sequence current compensation applied, and in
c_dc
c_dc 314.159265359
-2.0943951024 c_dc
15
c_time
Current
to
Control
l2 Interface
Current
i2var
to
l:0.001
Control r:0.01 i2var
Interface
Current
to
i2var Control
Interface
c_dc
0.0
c_dc
sequence current injection.

15 cccs_4p2 cccs_4p3
l1 var2i var2i
cp cp
l:0.001 Control Control
to k:1 to k:1
Current r:0.01 Current Current Current
to to
cn cn
Control Control
Interface Interface gnd gnd
k:1 k:1
i2var i2var
0.01
0.01
10e6 10e6
ref:vb ref:va
amplitude:100 amplitude:100
frequency:50 frequency:50 5 1e6
phase:-120 phase:0.0
gnd
phase:-240 i2var
frequency:50
Current
amplitude:100 to
Control
gnd Interface var2i
Current
1000e6
cccs_4p4
0.01
to
Control
Interface Control cn
to k:1
Current
i2var 10e6
gnd cp
k:1
i2var 5
Current
l3 to
Control
Interface
l:0.001
r:0.01
Current
to
Control
Interface
i2var
c_dc
-4.1887902048
c_dc
4.2 Delta Connected Current Sources
15
c_dc
0
c_dc
100
+ Voltage
to
c_dc Control
- Interface
0 v2var
c_dc
15 diff
c_pwl
diff
pwl:[0,0,0.499999,0,0.5,1,1,1]
c_dc
c_dc
-2.0943951024
c_dc 0
c_dc
15 diff
100
+
Voltage
to
Control
- Interface
v2var
c_dc
-4.1887902048
c_dc
15
diff
c_dc
diff
0
c_dc
100
+
Voltage
diff to
Control
- Interface
v2var
Figure 4.7: Saberr simulation for Delta connected current sources with zero
77
Ia_ampl Ia_ampl
Ia_pos_ampl Ia_pos_ampl
Ia_angle Ia_angle
Ia_pos_angle Ia_pos_angle
Ib_ampl Ib_ampl
Ib_pos_ampl Ib_pos_ampl
Ib_angle Ib_angle
Ib_pos_angle Ib_pos_angle
Ic_ampl Ic_ampl
Ic_pos_ampl Ic_pos_ampl
Ic_angle Ic_angle
Ic_pos_angle Ic_pos_angle
t t
Ia_neg_ampl Ia_neg_ampl
freq freq
Ia_neg_angle Ia_neg_angle
Ib_neg_ampl Ib_neg_ampl
Ic_neg_ampl Ic_neg_ampl
78 Ic_neg_angle
iap
Ic_neg_angle
iap
Simulation Studies
ibp ibp
icp icp
ian ian
ibn ibnibn_src
ibn
icn icnicn_src
icn
phase_a_c
phase_b_c
Compensator Delta Connected
phase_a_c
phase_b_c
iab
var2i
cp
cccs_4p2 var2i ibc cp
cccs_4p3
Control Control
to to
iab_ref Current k:1 ibc_ref Current k:1
cn cn
gnd gnd
k:1 k:1
10e6
Artificial_neutral
Artifical neutral
gnd
var2i
ica
1000e6 cccs_4p4
ica_ref Control cn
to k:1
Current
cp
gnd
phase_c_c
k:1
phase_c_c
Voltage amplitude and phases
Figure 4.8: Delta connected current sources used in Saberr simulation.
addition a zero sequence current is established in the delta as per the calculations
in Section 3.2.1.
Figure 4.9 shows the source side line currents for the system. Notice for
the first 0.2 seconds that there is no current in phase ‘a’, and then from 0.2
seconds there are balanced currents in the three phases as the negative sequence
compensation has started. Also note that there is no change to the balanced
three phase currents at 0.5 seconds when the Delta zero sequence current is
applied.
The negative sequence current on the source side of the point of common
coupling of the compensator is shown in Figure 4.10. Note that the negative
sequence currents are very nearly zero once the compensation is applied at 0.2
seconds, and there is no change at 0.5 seconds when the zero sequence current
is applied.
The ratings of the current sources are also of particular interest. As one
might surmise, if a zero sequence current is injected into the Delta then this may
result in a change of the current rating√of the individual current sources. The
use of a Delta has already resulted in a 3 higher voltage rating as compared to
wye connected sources. Figure 4.11 shows the currents in the individual current
sources of the Delta. As can be seen form the figure the introduction of the zero
sequence current at 0.5 seconds results in a considerable increase in the current
through one of the current sources. Figure 4.12 shows the actual zero sequcne
current and its relative phase to the phase ‘a’ current. The zero sequence current
clearly has significant amplitude, as could be deduced from Figure 4.11.
Finally, Figure 4.13 shows the power in the current sources, and is the dia-
gram that demonstrates that the zero sequence current strategy is able to give
zero average real power into each of the current sources. Notice that prior to
0.5 seconds that there is average real power flow into one current source, and
average real power flow out of another, whilst the third has an average real
power of zero. The zero sequence current is introduced at 0.5 seconds and the
average real powers for all the current sources go to zero, as predicted by the
theory of Section 3.2.1.
4.2 Delta Connected Current Sources 79
Graph0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
ic_source_side
15.0
10.0
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
−15.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0 ib_source_side
15.0
10.0
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
−15.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
ia_source_side
15.0
10.0
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
−15.0
−20.0
0.0 50.0m 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
t(s)
Figure 4.9: Source side line currents for the Delta connected current sources.
Graph0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
icn_src
(−)
0.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ibn_src
(−)
0.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ian_src
(−)
0.0
−10.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t(s)
Figure 4.10: Negative sequence currents on the source side with Delta compen-
sator.
Graph0
(A) : t(s)
5.0
i(cccs_4p.cccs_4p4)
0.0
(A)
−5.0
(A) : t(s)
10.0
i(cccs_4p.cccs_4p3)
0.0
(A)
−10.0
(A) : t(s)
10.0
i(cccs_4p.cccs_4p2)
0.0
(A)
−10.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t(s)
Figure 4.11: Currents in the individual current sources for a Delta connected
compensator.
Graph0
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ian
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
6.0
i0
4.0
2.0
(−)
0.0
−2.0
−4.0
−6.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t(s)
Figure 4.12: Zero sequence current injected into the Delta compensator.
4.3 Wye Connected Current Sources and Voltage Source 81
Graph0
(W) : t(s)
1.0k
(W)
0.0
−1.0k
(W) : t(s)
1.0k
(W)
0.0
−1.0k
(W) : t(s)
1.0k
(W)
0.0
−1.0k
0.4 0.425 0.45 0.475 0.5 0.525 0.55 0.575 0.6 0.625 0.65 0.675 0.7 0.725
t(s)
Figure 4.13: Current source powers in Delta compensator with zero sequence
current applied at 0.5 seconds.
Remark 4.3 It is worth re-emphasising the advantage of this approach to com-

pensation versus that in [10]. The reference currents are derived directly from
measurements of the negative sequence current on the load side of the compen-
sator, and do not rely on identifying the load. Furthermore, feedback techniques
can be applied to this technique to eliminate any residual negative sequence cur-
rent (although this has not been done in the simulations presented above). n
4.3 Wye Connected Current Sources and Voltage

Source
This section considers a wye connected system consisting of two current sources
and a voltage source to implement the compensator. This particular configura-
tion is required in order to allow the injection of the zero sequence voltage into
the system as per the derivation in Section 3.2.2.
Figure 4.14 shows the schematic for the Saberr simulation of the wye con-
nected compensator. Figure 4.15 is a close-up of the compensator – note that
the phase ‘a’ current source has been replaced with a voltage source to allow the
injection of the zero sequence voltage. The configuration of the voltage source
reference generator is shown in Figure 4.16.
Simulation plots with load parameters of Ra = 10Ω, Rb = 15Ω and Rc = 5Ω
are shown Figures 4.17, 4.18 and 4.19.
Figure 4.17 shows the negative sequence currents on both the load side and
the source side of the compensator coupling point. This shows that the com-
pensator is achieving the objective of negative sequence compensation. When
looking at this Figure note the different scales on the axes.
82
Symmetrical Component Generation
Symmetrical Components Symmetrical Components

Load side of PCC source side of PCC
Ia_ampl Ia_ampl
Est_amplitude_0 Ia_pos_ampl Ia_pos_ampl est_ia_src_amp Ia_pos_ampl
Ia_angle Ia_angle
ia_phase Ia_pos_angle ia_phase_src Ia_pos_angle

Ia_pos_angle
Ib_ampl Ib_ampl
Est_amplitude_120 Ib_pos_ampl Ib_pos_ampl est_ib_src_amp Ib_pos_ampl
Ib_angle Ib_angle
ib_phase Ib_pos_angle ib_phase_src Ib_pos_angle

Ib_pos_angle
Ic_ampl Ic_ampl
Est_amplitude_240 Ic_pos_ampl Ic_pos_ampl est_ic_src_amp Ic_pos_ampl
Ic_angle Ic_angle
ic_phase Ic_pos_angle ic_phase_src Ic_pos_angle
Ic_pos_angle
t t
time Ia_neg_ampl Ia_neg_ampl time Ia_neg_ampl

freq freq
Base_freq Ia_neg_angle Base_freq Ia_neg_angle
Ia_neg_angle
Ib_neg_ampl Ib_neg_ampl Ib_neg_ampl
Ib_neg_angle
This file is designed to test the extraction of symmetrical
components from the data that is output from the Ic_neg_ampl Ic_neg_ampl Ic_neg_ampl
Karimi−Ghartemani signal extraction algorithms. Ic_neg_angle Ic_neg_angle
Ic_neg_angle
iap iapiap_src
iap
The file uses the symmetrical components extracted as the
quence voltage injection.

ibp ibpibp_src
currents that are injected into the phases via current sources. ibp
icp icpicp_src
icp
Have added a section around the load of passive circuits to see if ian ianian_src
ian
these circuits can balance the load. Two different passive loads ibn
ibn
ibnibn_src
are included − the delta connected compensator, and the wye icn icnicn_src
icn
connected compensator. Note that the current source gains c_dc ib phase info
Base_freq
c_dc 314.159265359 Est_freq
Base_freq
are set to zero under this condition so that they play no part in the Est_freq_120
Initial_phase
−2.0943951024 Est_phase
simulation. c_dc
Est_phase_120
Karimi−
15
Initial_amplitude Ghartemani
I did run into considerable problenms when I had the artificial_neutral c_time
time PLL2 Est_amplitude
PLL Est_amplitude_120
connected via a 200MOhm resistor to ground − removed this and all Signal_input
Est_waveform
worked OK. Est_waveform_120
LOAD phase_iac
phase_ibc
The simulation seems to work OK.
phaseb phaseb Current
to
Active compensator.
Control
l2 Interface
phase_b
vb Current i2var
to l:0.001
Control ib_source_side r:0 Compensator
Interface i2var
i2var Current
to
Control comp_ib Base_freq
Interface Est_freq
phase_ibc c_dc Base_freq Est_freq_0
Initial_phase
0.0 Est_phase
Est_phase_0
c_dc
Karimi− to overcome numerical est_ic_src_amp
Initial_amplitude Ghartemani Controlled
15
l1 phase_a
problems with the
PLL1 Est_amplitude
phasea simulation
l:0.001
PLL Est_amplitude_0 var2i
voltage src var2i
Current Current Signal_input Phase b ref:cccs_4p3
r:0
to to cp cp
Control Control Est_waveform
ia_source_side Control ref:ccvs_4p1 Control cccs_4p
Interface Interface to to
phase_a ccvs_4p k:1 k:1
Current cn Current cn
i2var i2var
Est_waveform_0 gnd gnd
ia phase info Phase a 100e6 100e6 k:1 n_1116 k:−1
va ref:r3
ref:r2 10
15
ref:vb ref:va
amplitude:100 amplitude:100
frequency:50 frequency:50 lag
phase:−120 phase:0.0
Load_neutral Artifical_neutral K
i2var
ibn (s/w) + 1
phase:−240 Current
Artifical neutral
frequency:50 to
amplitude:100 Control comp_ia n_1116
Interface
phase_iac
gnd Phase c
5 100e6
ref:r12 var2i
lag
vc
K Control cn
to k:1
icn (s/w) + 1 Current cccs_4p ref:cccs_4p4
phase_c cp
i2var
ic_source_side phase_icc
k:−1 gnd
Current phase_c
l3 to
Control
Interface
phasec
l:0.001
r:0
Current comp_ic
to i2var
Control
Interface
Current
to
i2var Control ic phase info
Interface Voltage source reference generator
phase_icc
Base_freq
c_dc Base_freq Est_freq Est_freq_240
Initial_phase
−4.1887902048 Est_phase
Est_phase_240
c_dc
Karimi−
msin
Initial_amplitude Ghartemani zero_sequence
15 in1 out Two passive compemsators
PLL3 Est_amplitude Est_amplitude_240 in1 out k1*in1*sin(k2*in2) Σ va_volt_ref
k1:1
Signal_input
PLL Ia_neg_angle Σ − delta connected and wye
Est_waveform k1:2
Est_waveform_240 in2
k2:+1
in2 Est_waveform_va
k2:+1
connected.
Est_phase_va
Source side current sensors

phase_iac_nc
phase_ibc_nc
ref:c5
0.00005
ref:l7
0.101077
Phase Referencing
Base_freq phase_iac_nc phase_ibc_nc phase_icc_nc

Initial_phase
0 Est_phase
est_ia_src_phase
Karimi−
ref:l9
c_dc
0.101077
Initial_amplitude Ghartemani Source current phases relative to va

15
phase_icc_nc
PLL5 Est_amplitude diff
PLL est_ia_src_amp
Signal_input est_ia_src_phase ia_phase_src
ia_source_side Est_waveform 200e6 200e6 200e6
Est_phase_va gnd gnd gnd
diff
Base_freq
Passive Wye Compensation Network
c_dc Base_freq Est_freq est_ib_src_phase ib_phase_src − be careful about the DC initial conditions.
Initial_phase
−2.0943951024 Est_phase
est_ib_src_phase
c_dc
Karimi−
Initial_amplitude Ghartemani Est_phase_va
15
PLL6 Est_amplitude diff
PLL est_ib_src_amp
Signal_input est_ic_src_phase ic_phase_src
ib_source_side Est_waveform
phase_iac_nc Current
to
Control passive_delta_comp_ia
Interface
Est_phase_va
Base_freq i2var
Initial_phase
−4.1887902048 Est_phase
est_ic_src_phase
c_dc
Karimi− passive_delta_comp_ic
Initial_amplitude Ghartemani 0.000033
15 Current phases relative to va at load
ref:c6
PLL7 Est_amplitude Current Current
est_ic_src_amp phase_ibc_nc ref:c4 phase_icc_nc
diff to to
Signal_input
PLL Control passive_delta_comp_ib
0.000033 Control
Est_waveform Interface Interface
ic_source_side Est_phase_0 ia_phase
i2var i2var
ref:l15
Est_phase_va 0.151615
diff
Est_phase_120 ib_phase
Passive Delta Compensation Network
Est_phase_va
diff
Est_phase_240 ic_phase
Est_phase_va

Base_freq
Est_freq_va
Initial_phase
0 Est_phase
Karimi− Est_phase_va
c_dc
Initial_amplitude
100
Ghartemani
PLL4 Est_amplitude
phasea PLL Est_ampl_va
+ Voltage Signal_input
to
Control Est_waveform
− Interface Est_waveform_va
v2var
Figure 4.14: Saberr schematic of wye connected compensator with zero se-
Simulation Studies
phase_iac
phase_ibc
Active compensator.
Compensator

problems with the Controlled
simulation var2i
voltage src var2i ref:cccs_4p3
cp cp
Control ref:ccvs_4p1 Control cccs_4p
to ccvs_4p k:1 to k:1
Current Current
cn cn
gnd gnd
k:1 n_1116 k:−1
lag
K
ibn (s/w) + 1
n_1116
lag var2i
K Control
to
cn
k:1
icn (s/w) + 1 Current cccs_4p ref:cccs_4p4
cp
k:−1 gnd phase_icc
Figure 4.15: Close-up of compensator showing voltage source for zero sequence
voltage injection.
phase_c
Voltage source reference generator
msin
Est_ampl_va zero_sequence
in1 out
in1 out k1*in1*sin(k2*in2) Σ va_volt_ref
k1:1
Ia_neg_angle
Σ
k1:2
in2
k2:+1
k2:+1
in2 Est_waveform_va
Est_phase_va
Phase Referencing
Source current phases relative to va
Figure 4.16: Voltage source reference generator for zero sequence voltage injec-
tion for a wye connected compensator.
Wye connected − two cur srcs, one voltage src. Ra=10 Ohm, Rb=15 Ohm, Rc=5 Ohm
(−) : t(s)
0.2
icn_src
0.1
(−)
0.0
−0.1
−0.2
(−) : t(s)
10.0
icn
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
0.2
ibn_src
0.1
(−)
0.0
−0.1
−0.2
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ibn
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
0.2
ian_src
0.1
(−)
0.0
−0.1
−0.2
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ian
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0
t(s)
Figure 4.17: Negative sequence currents with a zero sequence voltage injection
wye connected compensator.
Figure 4.18 shows various voltages in the compensator. Note the the star
point voltage is equal to the phase ‘a’ voltage, except that it is 180◦ out of phase
with it. This means that the voltage across phase ‘a’ will be double the normal
phase voltage. This can be seen in the phase ‘a’ plot. The magnitude of the
voltages across the other phases will be the normal phase voltages, but their
phase angle will be different.
Figure 4.19 shows the powers across the sources in the wye connected com-
pensator. One can see that the average power across each source is zero, as
expected from the theory developed earlier with respect to zero sequence volt-
age injection.
Remark 4.4 Compare Figure 4.19 with Figure 4.6 which is for the case when
no zero sequence voltage is injected. n
The simulations thus-far have used a real unbalanced load. The theory
developed in Chapter 2 however is not specific to these types of loads. The
very essence of the algorithm itself does not assume any characteristic of the
unbalance – it does not attempt to identify the load in any way. Therefore the
algorithms should work with a more general unbalance. To test that this is true
the load used to generate the next set of simulation results is:
Za = 10 + jω(0.001) (4.1)
Zb = 15 + jω(0.1) (4.2)
Zc = 5 + jω(0.0001) (4.3)
The relevant results for the same wye connected compensator as the previous
cases is shown in Figures 4.20, 4.21 and 4.22. Figure 4.20 shows that under
(V) : t(s)
200.0
volt_src_pha_voltage
150.0
100.0
50.0
(V)
0.0
−50.0
−100.0
−150.0
−200.0
(V) : t(s)
200.0
cur_src_phc_voltage
150.0
100.0
50.0
(V)
0.0
−50.0
−100.0
−150.0
−200.0
(V) : t(s)
150.0
cur_src_phb_voltage
100.0
50.0
0.0
(V)
−50.0
−100.0
−150.0
−200.0
(V) : t(s)
compensator_star_v
150.0
100.0
50.0 phase_a_v
(V)
0.0
−50.0
−100.0
−150.0
0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66
t(s)
Figure 4.18: Voltages across the compensator sources and star point for a zero
sequence voltage injection wye connected compensator.
(W) : t(s)
pwr_Vsrc_pha
250.0
(W)
0.0
−250.0
(W) : t(s)
200.0
pwer_Csrc_phc
(W)
0.0
−200.0
(W) : t(s)
200.0
pwr_Csrc_phb
(W)
0.0
−200.0
0.4 0.425 0.45 0.475 0.5 0.525 0.55 0.575 0.6 0.625 0.65 0.675 0.7 0.725 0.75 0.775 0.8
t(s)
Figure 4.19: Powers in the sources for a zero sequence voltage injection wye
connected compensator.
Wye connection − Ra=10 Ohm, La=0.001H, Rb=15 Ohm, Lb=0.1H, Rc=5 Ohm, Lc=0.0001H
(−) : t(s)
0.2
icn_src
0.1
(−)
0.0
−0.1
−0.2
(−) : t(s)
10.0
icn
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
0.2
ibn_src
0.1
(−)
0.0
−0.1
−0.2
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ibn
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
(−) : t(s)
0.2
ian_src
0.1
(−)
0.0
−0.1
−0.2
(−) : t(s)
10.0
ian
5.0
(−)
0.0
−5.0
−10.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
t(s)
Figure 4.20: Negative sequence currents for wye connected compensator with
zero sequence injection and general unbalanced admittances.
the general load condition that the negative sequence currents are eliminated as
previously – i.e the compensator still performs its basic function.
Figure 4.21 shows the new voltages across each of the sources in the com-
pensator. Note that they are considerably different in this case as compared
to the same plots for the resistive load case in Figure 4.18. Note the totally
different phase relationship between the ‘a’ phase voltage and the compensator
star voltage for the general case as compared to the resistive case.
Remark 4.5 An implication of the Figures 4.21 and 4.18 is that the H-bridges
that form the compensator sources in reality would need to be rated at twice the
phase voltage to be able to handle an arbitrary unbalance situation. n
Figure 4.22 shows the power in the individual sources when there is zero
sequence voltage injection. Notice that, as in the previous case shown in Fig-
ure 4.19, the average power is zero. Therefore the zero sequence injection is still
doing its job.
4.4 Unbalanced Source Voltages

Simulation studies were carried out to investigate the effects of unbalanced
source voltages on the performance of the H-bridge STATCOM. These simu-
lations were carried out with variations on the previous Saber simulation files.
4.4.1 Delta Connected STATCOM

A initial simulation was carried out to see what effect an unbalanced supply
has one the performance of the STATCOM when the load is balanced, and
4.4 Unbalanced Source Voltages 87
(V) : t(s)
comp_star_pt
150.0
100.0
50.0 phase_a_volt
(V)
0.0
−50.0
−100.0
−150.0
(V) : t(s)
200.0
volt_Csrc_phc
150.0
100.0
50.0
(V)
0.0
−50.0
−100.0
−150.0
−200.0
(V) : t(s)
50.0
volt_Csrc_phb
25.0
(V)
0.0
−25.0
−50.0
(V) : t(s)
volt_Vsrc_pha
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
(V)
0.0
−50.0
−100.0
−150.0
−200.0
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75
t(s)
Figure 4.21: Voltages for a wye connected compensator with zero sequence
voltage injection and general unbalanced load.
(W) : t(s)
1.0k
pwr_pha_volt_src
(W)
0.0
−1.0k
(W) : t(s)
1.0k
pwr_phc_cur_src
(W)
0.0
−1.0k
(W) : t(s)
200.0
pwr_phb_cur_src
(W)
0.0
−200.0
0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.5 0.52
t(s)
Figure 4.22: Powers for a wye connected compensator with zero sequence voltage
injection and a general load.
Unbalanced voltages, load current negative sequence controller, I_0 injection
(W) : t(s)
600.0
Total Current source powers
400.0
200.0
(W)
0.0
−200.0
−400.0
(W) : t(s)
200.0
Cur src Pca
100.0
(W)
0.0
−100.0
(W) : t(s)
100.0
Cur src Pbc
0.0
(W)
−100.0
−200.0
−300.0
(W) : t(s)
300.0
Cur src Pab
200.0
(W)
100.0
0.0
−100.0
(−) : t(s)
1.0
i0
0.5
(−)
0.0
−0.5
−1.0
(−) : t(s)
30.0
cur_ia_source_side
20.0
cur_ib_source_side
10.0
(−)
0.0 cur_ic_source_side
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
cur_a_load
15.0
10.0
5.0
cur_b_load
(−)
0.0
−5.0 cur_c_load
−10.0
−15.0
−20.0
0.44 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.48 0.49 0.5 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.56
t(s)
Figure 4.23: Simulation of a Delta connected current source based STATCOM

with 20% dip in phase ‘a’, a balanced resistive load, negative sequence injection
from derived from the load current to balance the currents, and I0 injection for
power balance.
there is a 20% dip in the phase ‘a’ voltage. The load is a simple resistive load
consisting of 5Ω resistors. The control strategy is attempting to balance the
unbalanced currents flowing to the load – i.e. the control strategy is the normal
negative sequence control that has been applied in the previous simulations in
this chapter.
Figure 4.23 shows the plot obtained from this situation. As can be seen the
source side currents are balanced as with the balanced voltage case. Similarly the
load side currents are not balanced, as was the case with the previous balanced
situations. This later point means that the voltage at the STATCOM connection
point is unbalanced, and the resultant negative sequence currents flowing as a
consequence of this are being absorbed/produced by the STATCOM. From the
perspective of the H-bridge, the powers into/out of the current sources do not
have an average of zero regardless of whether there is zero sequence injection or
not.
Remark 4.6 The fact that the current source powers are not zero under the
unbalanced voltage conditions with or without zero sequence injection should not
be surprising. The theory for the zero sequence injection was developed assuming
that balanced three phase source voltages. n
jXs
PCC
r Balanced
Vs
r r r r r r Load
Is = Ips + Ins IL = IpL + InL
Symmetrical
Components
Generation
-(K p IˆnL + K i ò IˆnL )
IˆnL
-
+
S
r
InL 0
-IˆnL
STATCOM ´ PI
Figure 4.24: Single line diagram of conceptual re-balancing of unbalanced volt-

ages when there is a balanced load.
Remark 4.7 One can see from the top plot that the instantaneous three phase
power is oscillating at twice the supply frequency, and it has an average value of
near zero, but in actual fact is not zero. It has an average value of -13.1 Watts.
This outcome was predicted from equation (1.63), where was have an average
power term due to the negative sequence voltage interacting with the negative
sequence current. In this case the later is injected into line from the STATCOM.
n
4.4.1.1 Balanced Load Case

If the load is balanced, but the supply is unbalanced, then the following control
strategy can be used. This strategy is a simple extension of that used to the
unbalanced load current case previously investigated.
The basis of the strategy can be understood with the benefit of Figure 4.24.1
If the load is balanced then the only way that there can be a negative sequence
component in the load current is if there is a negative sequence voltage at
the point of common coupling. This negative sequence voltage can be elimi-
nated if the negative sequence voltage is totally dropped across the system line
impedance jXs . As can be seen from Figure 4.24 if the amplitude of the load
side negative sequence is present then its value is integrated and this values is
used to scale the current references to the STATCOM. The current references
are themselves the negative sequence load currents. The currents are made
negative so the the STATCOM is absorbing the negative sequence currents.
Remark 4.8 The fact the STATCOM is absorbing a scaled version of the neg-
ative sequence load current means that the STATCOM effectively looks like a
virtual load with the same phase angle as the true load. The current magnitude
1 This explanation is from Section 3.6.2.2 and is a repeated here for convenience.
Figure 4.25: From the top plot: load currents, negative sequence load current,
positive and negative sequence voltages, STATCOM compensator currents with
a balanced resistive load and a 20% different voltage in phase ‘a’ (14.3% unbal-
ance). STATCOM re-balancing occurs from 0.7 seconds.
drawn by the STATCOM increases (due to the integral action of the controller)
until the effective impedance magnitude of the STATCOM is very low (ideally
zero). Therefore almost all of the negative sequence voltage is dropped across
the line impedance. n
The other important issue with respect to the H-bridge STATCOM is the
phase powers that are absorbed or generated under these conditions. Because
the phase of the current drawn by the STATCOM is π radians from that in the
unbalanced load case (due to the fact that the STATCOM is current in this case,
as compared to the unbalanced load compensator case where the compensator is
supplying the negative sequence currents required by the unbalance load), then
the same power relationships still hold. In this case the voltages involved are the
negative sequence voltage, but other than these differences the same expressions
still hold. It was shown in (1.62) that the positive sequence component of voltage
multiplied by the negative sequence of current (and vice-versa) only results in
oscillating power with an average value of zero. Therefore the interaction of the
negative sequence current of the STATCOM with the positive sequence voltage
at the PCC does not result in any real average power flow. Therefore expressions
in Summary 3.3 on Page 33 still hold without alteration.
In order to test this idea a simulation was implemented. The results of this
are shown in Figures 4.25, 4.26 and 4.27. The load in this case was a balanced 5Ω
delta connected resistive load, and the source voltage amplitude V̂a = 0.8V̂b,c .
Under the definition of unbalance of equation (1.1) this is 14.3% unbalance. The
Va = 0.8pu, PI Feedback gain, Balanced load
(−) : t(s)
20.0
cur_a_load
15.0
10.0
5.0
cur_b_load
(−)
0.0
−5.0 cur_c_load
−10.0
−15.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
60.0m
ian
40.0m
20.0m ibn
0.0
(−)
icn
−20.0m
−40.0m
−60.0m
(−) : t(s)
100.0
vap_pcc
75.0
50.0
25.0
vbp_pcc
(−)
0.0
−25.0 vcp_pcc
−50.0
−75.0
−100.0
(−) : t(s)
0.1
van_pcc
50.0m
vbn_pcc
0.0
(−)
−50.0m vcn_pcc
−0.1
−0.15
(−) : t(s)
comp_cur_a
75.0
50.0
25.0 comp_cur_b
(−)
0.0
−25.0
comp_cur_c
−50.0
−75.0
1.795 1.8 1.805 1.81 1.815 1.82 1.825 1.83 1.835 1.84 1.845 1.85 1.855
t(s)
Figure 4.26: Close-up of Figure 4.25 From the top plot: load currents, nega-
tive sequence load current, positive and negative sequence voltages, STATCOM
compensator currents with a balanced resistive load and a 20% different voltage
in phase ‘a’ (14.3% unbalance).
STATCOM is modeled as ideal delta connected current sources.

Figure 4.25 shows the expanded view of the key quantities. The re-balance
control is turned on at 0.7 seconds. One can see that the negative sequence volt-
age at the PCC collapses to a low voltage, whereas the positive sequence voltage
remains unchanged. Therefore the positive sequence load current remains un-
changed. The negative sequence load current is near zero as a result of the near
zero negative sequence voltage. The STATCOM compensation current is at a
level just slightly higher than the full load current. Figure 4.26 shows a close-up
of the same simulation. One can see from this that the negative sequence load
voltage and currents are very low in magnitude. The load current is driven by
the symmetrical positive sequence that remains, and therefore are a balanced
set of currents.
Finally Figure 4.27 shows the current source powers and the total power
into the STATCOM without and then with zero sequence injection. One can
see that before the zero sequence injection two of the sources have non-zero
average power. When the zero sequence injection is introduced at 1.3 seconds
that average powers for all of the current sources go to zero, and the total power
into the Delta still remains with an average power of zero. The other currents
flowing, as expected, do not change.
va−0.8pu, balanced load, PI feedback, I0 injection
(W) : t(s)
5.0k
Total cursrc pwr
4.0k
3.0k
2.0k
1.0k
(W)
0.0
−1.0k
−2.0k
−3.0k
−4.0k
−5.0k
(W) : t(s)
1.5k
Cursrc 1 pwr
1.0k
500.0
0.0
−500.0
(W)
−1.0k
−1.5k
−2.0k
−2.5k
−3.0k
(W) : t(s)
2.5k
Cursrc 2 pwr
2.0k
1.5k
1.0k
500.0
(W)
0.0
−500.0
−1.0k
−1.5k
−2.0k
(W) : t(s)
2.5k
Cursrc 3 pwr
2.0k
1.5k
1.0k
(W)
500.0
0.0
−500.0
−1.0k
−1.5k
1.24 1.26 1.28 1.3 1.32 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.4 1.42 1.44 1.46
t(s)
Figure 4.27: Total three phase power and the individual current source powers
under the conditions of figures 4.25 and 4.26.
Appendix A
STATCOM Delta Connection

Relationships
If one is going to connect a phase leg based STATCOM to the electrical net-
work then one has the choice of whether to connect it as a Star connection,
or a Delta connection. Generally speaking the technical literature appears to
concentrate on the former of these two connections. The reason for this is that
for a given system voltage the individual phase leg voltages will be lower with
the Star connection, since the phase voltage is √13 of the line-to-line system
voltage. However, if imbalance is to be compensated for the Star connection is
not suitable, and therefore one has to use the Delta connection.
Figure A.1 shows a delta connection of some arbitrary devices/loads. Note
the convention used for the directions of the currents and voltages. The conven-
tion used for currents is that the arrow indicates the direction of current flow.
Note the ~Iab corresponds to current flowing from node “a” to node “b”. For the
voltages the arrow head points voltage that is measured relative to the other
end of the arrow. Therefore V~ ab means V ~ a−V ~ b . Therefore zero phase current
flowing into the arrow head end of the voltage corresponds to positive power (as
per the convention in the Saber simulation package).
In all of the following analysis current flowing into a node is defined as
positive.
A.1 Space Vector – Time Domain Relations

In this section we shall briefly develop the relationship between the space vector
of a quantity and the instantaneous time domain value. Consider the folloiwn
generic space vector:
2
x= (xa + axb + a2 xc ) (A.1)
3
where xa,b,c denote instantaneous time domain values of a sinusoidally spatial
variable.
Realising that the space vector operators a and a2 are defined as follows:
94 STATCOM Delta Connection Relationships
ia
Phase a
vca
vab
iab ica
Phase b c
b
ib ibc
vbc
Phase c
ic
Figure A.1: Delta connection current and voltage conventions.
√
2π 1 3
a = ej 3 =− +j (A.2)
2 2 √
4π 2π 1 3
a2 = ej 3 = e−j 3 =− −j (A.3)
2 2
then we can write:
√ √
2 1 3 1 3
x= (xa + (− + j )xb + (− − j )xc ) (A.4)
3 2 2 √ 2 2
2 1 1 3
= (xa − xb − xc + j (xb − xc )) (A.5)
3 2 2 2
2 1 1 1
∴ x = xd + jxq = (xa − xb − xc ) + j √ (xb − xc ) (A.6)
3 2 2 3
If we assume that there are no zero sequences – i.e. that xa + xb + xc = 0
then we can get the following expressions for the phase values directly from the
space vector representation. From the zero sequence assumption and we can
write:
xb = −xa − xc
2 1 1
⇒ <{x} = (xa − (−xa − xc ) − xc )
3 2 2
A.2 Star-Delta Current Conversion 95
which can be rearranged to give:
xa = <{x} (A.7)
Similarly:
2 2
a2 x =
(a xa + xb + axc ) (A.8)
3 √ √
2 1 3 1 3
= (− xa − j xa + xb − xc + j xc ) (A.9)
3 2 2 2 2
Using xa = −xb − xc and after some simple manipulations, one can write the
previous expression as:
√
2 3 3
a2 x = ( xb + j (xb + 2xc )) (A.10)
3 2 2
Therefore one can see that:
xb = <{a2 x} (A.11)
A similar process can be carried out to get the xc expression. Starting out
with:
2
(axa + a2 xb + xc )
ax = (A.12)
3
and going through the same type of manipulations gives:
xc = <{ax} (A.13)
A.2 Star-Delta Current Conversion

We shall look at the Star-Delta relationship using space vector analysis [6]. The
standard definition of a current space vector is:
2
iL = (ia + aib + a2 ic ) (A.14)
3
2π
where a , ej 3 in the spatial domain (as compared to the time domain for
“a” defined for the symmetrical components), and ia , ib and ic are as defined in
Figure A.1, and iL is the line current.
Remark A.1 Note that in a Star connection the line current is the same as
the phase current. n
Considering Figure A.1 we can write the following expressions:
ia − iab + ica = 0 (A.15)

ib + iab − ibc = 0 (A.16)
ic + ibc − ica = 0 (A.17)
Therefore:
ia = iab − ica (A.18)

ib = ibc − iab (A.19)
ic = ica − ibc (A.20)
Substituting (A.18)– (A.20) into (A.14) one can write the following expres-
sion:
2
iL = (iab − ica + a(ibc − iab ) + a2 (ica − ibc )) (A.21)
3
2
= ((1 − a)iab + (a − a2 )ibc + (a2 − 1)ica ) (A.22)
3
We can write:
2π 2π
1 − a = 1 − (cos + j sin ) (A.23)
3√ 3
3
= 1 + 0.5 − j (A.24)
√ 2
3 3
= −j (A.25)
2 2
Similarly
2π 4π
a − a2 = ej − ej 3
3 (A.26)
2π 2π 4π 4π
= cos + j sin − cos − j sin (A.27)
3 √ 3 √ 3 3
3 3
= −0.5 + j + 0.5 + j (A.28)
√ 2 2
=j 3 (A.29)
and
4π
a2 − 1 = ej 3−1 (A.30)
4π 4π
= cos + j sin −1 (A.31)
3 √ 3
1 3
=− −j −1 (A.32)
2 √2
3 3
=− −j (A.33)
2 2
A.2 Star-Delta Current Conversion 97
Substituting for 1 − a, a − a2 , and a2 − 1 in (A.22) allows us to write:

√ √
2 3 3 √ 3 3
iL = [( − j )iab + j 3ibc + (− − j )ica ] (A.34)
3 2 2 √ 2 2 √
2 √ 1 3 1 3
= (j 3)[(− − j )iab + ibc + (− + j )ica ] (A.35)
3 2 2 2 2
From Figure 1.2 one can see that (A.35) can be written as:
2 √
iL = (j 3)[ibc + aica + a2 iab ] (A.36)
3√
= (j 3)i∆ (A.37)
where i∆ is the space vector of the delta currents – i.e. the actual currents in
the individual phases of the delta.
Equation (A.37) allows one to write the following expression for the delta
currents:
i
i∆ = −j √L (A.38)
3
Using the normal relationship between the space vector and the individual phase
currents, we can write:
i 1
ibc = <{i∆ } = <{−j √L } = √ ={iL } (A.39)
3 3
i L 1
ica = <{a2 i∆ } = <{−ja2 √ } = √ ={a2 iL } (A.40)
3 3
iL 1
iab = <{ai∆ } = <{−ja √ } = √ ={aiL } (A.41)
3 3
These expressions can be expanded to get the precise values of the delta
current values in terms of the line currents. Using the space vector current
2π
expression (A.14) and substituting for aj 3 one can write:
√
2 3
iL = (ia − 0.5ib − 0.5ic + j (ib − ic )) (A.42)
3 2
Using (A.42) and (A.39) one can see that:
1
ibc = (ib − ic ) (A.43)
3
Similarly, one can write:
√
2 2 3
a iL = (−0.5ia + ib − 0.5ic + (ic − ia )) (A.44)
3 2
and hence, using (A.40) one can write:
1
ica = (ic − ia ) (A.45)
3
One can also calculate the last current as:
1
iab = (ia − ib ) (A.46)
3
Summary A.1 The conversion from the line currents to the Delta phase cur-
rent is:
1
iab = (ia − ib ) (A.47)
3
1
ibc = (ib − ic ) (A.48)
3
1
ica = (ic − ia ) (A.49)
3
n
Figure A.2 shows the relationship between the line and phase current space
vectors. Note that the abc axis are in the space vector frame and do not relate to
the phasor frame in this diagram. However, the projections of the space vectors
onto the abc axes will give the instantaneous values of the currents as shown.
c Projection of i L on "b "

® b line current
iL
Â
a
Projection of i D on "a "

® ibc phase current
ica
iab
iD
1
Note that i D = i
3 L
Figure A.2: Relationship between line and phase space vectors for a delta con-
nection.
A.3 Star-Delta Voltage Conversion

A similar analysis can be carried out for the voltages. Consider Figure A.3
which shows a Star connected load. Given the phase voltages for this load, we
wish to calculate the space vector of the line voltages.
A.3 Star-Delta Voltage Conversion 99
Phase a
ia
va
vab vca
vb
vc
Phase b
ib
vbc
Phase c
ic
Figure A.3: Conventions used for voltages in Star and Delta load.
Applying KVL to the voltages on Figure A.3 one can write the following:
vab = va − vb (A.50)
vbc = vb − vc (A.51)
vca = vc − va (A.52)
Consistent with the definition of the space vector for the line currents in
(A.36), we have:
2
vL = (vbc + avca + a2 vab ) (A.53)
3
Substituting for vab , vbc and vca we can write:
2
vL = (a − a2 )(va + avb + a2 vc ) (A.54)
3
which can be written as:
√
v L = −j 3v ph (A.55)
where:
2
v ph = (va + avb + a2 vc ) (A.56)
3
As with the currents we can write the individual line voltages in terms of the
phase voltages as follows:
√ √
vbc = <{v L } = <{−j 3v ph } = 3={v ph } (A.57)
√ √
vca = <{a2 v L } = <{−ja2 3v ph } = 3={a2 v ph } (A.58)
√ √
vab = <{av L } = <{−ja 3v ph } = 3={av ph } (A.59)
A.3.1 Delta-Star Voltage Transformation

Of interest at times is the conversion of instantaneous values of voltage measured
in delta back to the star (or phase) values. It shall be assumed that there is no
zero sequence voltage present so that the transformations represented by (A.7),
(A.11) and (A.13) can be used. Using (A.55) we can write:
j
v ph = √ v L (A.60)
3
Using (A.7) we can therefore write:

j
va = < v ph = < √ vL (A.61)
3
( " √ √ #)
j 2 1 3 1 3
=< √ (vbc + (− + j )vca + (− − j )vab ) (A.62)
3 3 2 2 2 2
1
∴ va = (vab − vca ) (A.63)
3
One can similarly carry out the manipulations for:

j
vb = < a2 v ph = < a2 √ v L

(A.64)
3

j
vc = < av ph = < a √ v L (A.65)
3
Summarising the conversions from line voltages to phase voltages are:
1
va = (vab − vca ) (A.66)
3
1
vb = (vbc − vab ) (A.67)
3
1
vc = (vca − vbc ) (A.68)
3
A.4 Standard Star-Delta, Delta-Star Transformations 101
A.4 Standard Star-Delta, Delta-Star Transforma-

tions
The standard textbook transformations, using standard nomenclature, for the
Star-Delta and Delta-Star transformations are in both impedance and admit-
tance forms as below.
Star-Delta Impedance Form
ZAN ZBN ZAN ZBN + ZBN ZCN + ZCN ZAN
ZAB = ZAN + ZBN + = (A.69)
ZCN ZCN
ZBN ZCN ZAN ZBN + ZBN ZCN + ZCN ZAN
ZBC = ZBN + ZCN + = (A.70)
ZAN ZAN
ZCN ZAN ZAN ZBN + ZBN ZCN + ZCN ZAN
ZCA = ZCN + ZAN + = (A.71)
ZBN ZBN
Star-Delta Admittance Form
YAN YBN
YAB = (A.72)
(YAN + YBN + YCN )
YBN YCN
YBC = (A.73)
(YAN + YBN + YCN )
YCN YAN
YCA = (A.74)
(YAN + YBN + YCN )
The general rules for these conversions are:
sum of Zstar pair products
Zdelta = (A.75)
opposite Zstar
adjacent Ystar pair product
Ydelta = (A.76)
sum of Ystar
Delta-Star Imepdance Form
ZCA ZAB
ZAN = (A.77)
(ZAB + ZBC + ZCA )
ZAB ZBC
ZBN = (A.78)
(ZAB + ZBC + ZCA )
ZBC ZCA
ZCN = (A.79)
(ZAB + ZBC + ZCA )
Delta-Star Admittance Form
YCA YAB (YAB YBC + YBC YCA + YCA YAB )
YAN = YCA + YAB + = (A.80)
YBC YBC
YAB YBC (YAB YBC + YBC YCA + YCA YAB )
YBN = YAB + YBC + = (A.81)
YCA YCA
YBC YCA (YAB YBC + YBC YCA + YCA YAB )
YCN = YBC + YCA + = (A.82)
YAB YAB
The general rules for these conversions are:
adjacent Zdelta pair product
Zstar = (A.83)
sum of Zdelta
sum of Ydelta pair products
Ystar = (A.84)
opposite Ydelta
Appendix B
Current and Voltage

Measurement
Instrumentation
One of the crucial components in the simulations, and also in the rela imple-
mentation of the symmetrical component system is the algorithm/circuit that
measures the phasor quantities for the system.
After some initial research on this matter, it was decided to use a Phase
Locked Loop system based by Karimi-Ghartemani etal [5]. This system enables
the estimation of:
• the synchronised fundamental component of the input.
• a 90◦ phase-shifted version of the fundamental component.
• the amplitude of the fundamental component.
• the phase angle of the fundamental component.
• the frequency of the fundamental component.
• the time derivatives of the amplitude, frequency and phase of the funda-
mental component.
• the harmonics in the input.
I have not carried out a comprehensive analysis of this particular circuit, but
I have carried out extensive simulations of its performance, and it appears to
perform very well. In the presence of distorted inputs only the fundamental
component is extracted, with the distorted components significantly suppressed.
Some more analysis and testing of this circuit will be required before final real
world implementation.
Remark B.1 One issue that emerged when using the circuit in unbalanced
source voltage simulations of the STATCOM was that when the input ampli-
tude of the waveform to the circuit gets large and the initial estimate of the
input amplitude is in error (and even if it is not in error), the estimated out-
put waveform develops a distortion near the positive and negative peaks. The
104 Current and Voltage Measurement Instrumentation
analysis of the circuit to understand why this occurs is very difficult because of
its non-linear dynamics. However, one simple way of avoiding this issue is to
drive the circuit with per-unit values instead of absolute values. In this way,
regardless of amplitude, the circuit will perform the same. n
The block diagram of the Saberr implementation of the Karimi-Ghartemani
PLL is shown in Figure B.1. As can be seen from this diagram this PLL is a
significant variation from a conventional PLL. The clever part of the PLL is the
section that is able to extract the amplitude information from the input signal.
Figure B.2 shows the performance of the phase locked loop with a highly
distorted input – a square wave. Notice that within three cycles the output
waveform is phase locked with the input. Note that the output is only the
fundamental component of the input. The output has been subtracted from the
input to give only the harmonic components in the input. This process could
perhaps be used in an active filtering application to get the harmonics. This
will require further testing to ascertain the quality of the filtering properties of
this circuit.
Initial_phase
sor quantities.
Initial_phase
Newer Karimi−Ghatemani circuit

Est_freq
Base_freq Est_freq
Base_freq Est_freq
lag integ
mult k:50 +1
diff +1
in1 Est_freq
K k in2
Signal_input +1 Σ (s/w) + 1 +1
Signal_input
s
in2 constant mod Σ
integ +1 in1 out
k 999
s Est_phase
k:10
Est_phase
cos
Est_phase
in1
out in
mult
sin
in2
Est_amplitude
Est_amplitude
integ lag in2
in1 out
k K
in1
(s/w) + 1 Σ
Est_waveform
s Est_amplitude +1 mult
k:70 in2
+1 Est_waveform
Initial_amplitude
Est_waveform
Est_waveform
Initial_amplitude
Figure B.1: The Karimi-Ghartemani Phase Locked Loop for estimation of pha-
105
106 Current and Voltage Measurement Instrumentation
Karimi−Ghartemani PLL
(−) : t(s)
Harmonics
20.0
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
(−) : t(s)
20.0
y_t
Input
10.0
(−)
0.0
−10.0
−20.0
25.0m 50.0m 75.0m 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 0.25 0.275 0.3 0.325 0.35 0.375
t(s)
Figure B.2: Performance of the Karimi-Ghartemani Phase Locked Loop with a

square wave input.
Appendix C
Software Listings
C.1 Symmetrical Components Evaluation using

MAST
The following listing is of the symmetrical components MAST file used in all
the Saberr simulations in this report.
###############################################################################
#
# S y m me t r ic a l Components Template
#
# Written by : Robert Betz
# C r e a t e d : 17/5/2005
#
###############################################################################
###############################################################################
#
# DESCRIPTION
#
# This MAST code c a l c u l a t e s t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e
components
# o f t h e AC s i n u s o i d a l a m p l i t u d e and phase data f e d t o i t .
#
# The data r e t u r n e d from t h e r o u t i n e i s t h e p h a s o r s f o r t h e
p o s i t i v e and
# n e g a t i v e s y m m e t r i c a l components , a s w e l l a s t h e time domain
versions of
# t h e s e component waveforms .
#
###############################################################################
# Notes :
# The I ? _angle p a r a m e t e r s below a r e t h e p h a s o r a n g l e s f o r t h e
various
# c u r r e n t s . S i m i l a r y f o r t h e o ut pu t s y m m e t r i c a l component v a l u e s
the
# I ? _pos/ neg_angle i s t h e r e l a t i v e phase o f t h e p h a s o r s f o r t h e s e
108 Software Listings
# components .
#
# The f r e q p a r a m e t e r i s t h e s u p p l y f r e q u e n c y .
#
# The i a , i b and i c ou tp ut p a r a m e t e r s a r e t h e time domain v e r s i o n s
of the
# r e s p e c t i v e waveforms .
t e m p l a t e symmetrical_components Ia_ampl I a _ a n g l e Ib_ampl Ib_angle \

Ic_ampl I c _ a n g l e f r e q t Ia_pos_ampl Ia_pos_angle Ib_pos_ampl \
Ib_pos_angle Ic_pos_ampl Ic_pos_angle Ia_neg_ampl Ia_neg_angle
\
Ib_neg_ampl Ib_neg_angle Ic_neg_ampl Ic_neg_angle \
iap ibp icp ian ibn icn
i n p u t nu Ia_ampl , Ia_angle , Ib_ampl , Ib_angle , Ic_ampl , I c_ a n g l e , t

, freq
ou tp u t nu Ia_pos_ampl , Ia_pos_angle , Ib_pos_ampl , Ib_pos_angle , \

Ic_pos_ampl , Ic_pos_angle , Ia_neg_ampl , Ia_neg_angle , \
Ib_neg_ampl , Ib_neg_angle , Ic_neg_ampl , Ic_neg_angle , \
iap , ibp , i c p , ian , ibn , i c n
{
f o r e i g n atan2_c
# d e c l a r e l o c a l v e r s i o n s o f a l l t h e o ut pu t v a r i a b l e s
v a l nu l_Ia_pos_ampl , l_Ia_pos_angle , l_Ib_pos_ampl ,
l_Ib_pos_angle , \
l_Ic_pos_ampl , l_Ic_pos_angle , l_Ia_neg_ampl ,
l_Ia_neg_angle , \
l_Ib_neg_ampl , l_Ib_neg_angle , l_Ic_neg_ampl ,
l_Ic_neg_angle , \
l_iap , l_ibp , l _ i c p , l_ian , l_ibn , l _ i c n , math_pi , two_pi ,
four_pi
v a l nu r e a l _ I a p , imag_Iap , r e al _ I bp , imag_Ibp , r e a l _ I c p ,
imag_Icp
v a l nu r e a l _ I a n , imag_Ian , r e al _ I bn , imag_Ibn , r e a l _ I c n ,
imag_Icn
#−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
values {
# c a l c u l a t e t h e r e a l and i m a g i n a r y components o f t h e
p o s i t i v e sequence
math_pi = 3 . 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 6
two_pi = 2 ∗ math_pi
f o u r _ p i = 4 ∗ math_pi
r e a l _ I a p = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ c o s ( I a _ a n g l e ) + Ib_ampl ∗
\
C.1 Symmetrical Components Evaluation using MAST 109
c o s ( Ib_angle + two_pi / 3 . 0 ) + Ic_ampl ∗ c o s ( I c _ a n g l e +

four_pi / 3 . 0 ) )
imag_Iap = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ s i n ( I a _ a n g l e ) + Ib_ampl ∗

\
s i n ( Ib_angle + two_pi / 3 . 0 ) + Ic_ampl ∗ s i n ( I c _ a n g l e +
four_pi / 3 . 0 ) )
r e a l _ I b p = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ c o s ( I a _ a n g l e + f o u r _ p i
/ 3 . 0 ) +\
Ib_ampl ∗ c o s ( Ib_angle ) + Ic_ampl ∗ c o s ( I c _ a n g l e +
two_pi / 3 . 0 ) )
imag_Ibp = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ s i n ( I a _ a n g l e + f o u r _ p i
/ 3 . 0 ) +\
Ib_ampl ∗ s i n ( Ib_angle ) + Ic_ampl ∗ s i n ( I c _ a n g l e +
two_pi / 3 . 0 ) )
r e a l _ I c p = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ c o s ( I a _ a n g l e + two_pi
/ 3 . 0 ) +\
Ib_ampl ∗ c o s ( Ib_angle + f o u r _ p i / 3 . 0 ) + Ic_ampl ∗ c o s (
Ic_angle ) )
imag_Icp = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ s i n ( I a _ a n g l e + two_pi

/ 3 . 0 ) +\
Ib_ampl ∗ s i n ( Ib_angle + f o u r _ p i / 3 . 0 ) + Ic_ampl ∗ s i n (
Ic_angle ) )
# c a l c u l a t e t h e r e a l and i m a g i n a r y components o f t h e
negative sequence
r e a l _ I a n = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ c o s ( I a _ a n g l e ) + Ib_ampl ∗
\
c o s ( Ib_angle + f o u r _ p i / 3 . 0 ) + Ic_ampl ∗ c o s ( I c _ a n g l e +
two_pi / 3 . 0 ) )
imag_Ian = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ s i n ( I a _ a n g l e ) + Ib_ampl ∗

\
s i n ( Ib_angle + f o u r _ p i / 3 . 0 ) + Ic_ampl ∗ s i n ( I c _ a n g l e +
two_pi / 3 . 0 ) )
r e a l _ I b n = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ c o s ( I a _ a n g l e + two_pi
/ 3 . 0 ) +\
Ib_ampl ∗ c o s ( Ib_angle ) + Ic_ampl ∗ c o s ( I c _ a n g l e +
four_pi / 3 . 0 ) )
imag_Ibn = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ s i n ( I a _ a n g l e + two_pi

/ 3 . 0 ) +\
Ib_ampl ∗ s i n ( Ib_angle ) + Ic_ampl ∗ s i n ( I c _ a n g l e +
four_pi / 3 . 0 ) )
r e a l _ I c n = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ c o s ( I a _ a n g l e + f o u r _ p i
/ 3 . 0 ) +\
Ib_ampl ∗ c o s ( Ib_angle + two_pi / 3 . 0 ) + Ic_ampl ∗ c o s (
Ic_angle ) )
imag_Icn = 1 . 0 / 3 . 0 ∗ ( Ia_ampl ∗ s i n ( I a _ a n g l e + f o u r _ p i
/ 3 . 0 ) +\
Ib_ampl ∗ s i n ( Ib_angle + two_pi / 3 . 0 ) + Ic_ampl ∗ s i n (
Ic_angle ) )
# now compute t h e p h a s o r s f o r t h e s y m m e t r i c a l components

# p o s i t i v e sequence
l_Ia_pos_ampl = s q r t ( r e a l _ I a p ∗∗2 + imag_Iap ∗ ∗ 2 )
l_Ia_pos_angle = atan2_c ( r e a l _ I a p , imag_Iap )
l_Ib_pos_ampl = s q r t ( r e a l _ I b p ∗∗2 + imag_Ibp ∗ ∗ 2 )

l_Ib_pos_angle = atan2_c ( r e a l_ I b p , imag_Ibp )
l_Ic_pos_ampl = s q r t ( r e a l _ I c p ∗∗2 + imag_Icp ∗ ∗ 2 )

l_Ic_pos_angle = atan2_c ( r e a l _ I c p , imag_Icp )
# negative sequence
l_Ia_neg_ampl = s q r t ( r e a l _ I a n ∗∗2 + imag_Ian ∗ ∗ 2 )
l_Ia_neg_angle = atan2_c ( r e a l _ I a n , imag_Ian )
l_Ib_neg_ampl = s q r t ( r e a l _ I b n ∗∗2 + imag_Ibn ∗ ∗ 2 )

l_Ib_neg_angle = atan2_c ( re a l _I b n , imag_Ibn )
l_Ic_neg_ampl = s q r t ( r e a l _ I c n ∗∗2 + imag_Icn ∗ ∗ 2 )

l_Ic_neg_angle = atan2_c ( r e a l _ I c n , imag_Icn )
# now compute t h e time domain f o r m s f o r t h e s y m m e t r i c a l

# components
# Note t h a t t h e p i /2 term i s added b e c a u s e t h e s o u r c e s i n
the simulation are
# s i n u s o i d a l ( not c o s i n u s o i d a l ) .
l _ i a p = l_Ia_pos_ampl ∗ c o s ( f r e q ∗ t + l_Ia_pos_angle −
math_pi / 2 . 0 )
l_ibp = l_Ib_pos_ampl ∗ c o s ( f r e q ∗ t + l_Ib_pos_angle −
math_pi / 2 . 0 )
l _ i c p = l_Ic_pos_ampl ∗ c o s ( f r e q ∗ t + l_Ic_pos_angle −
math_pi / 2 . 0 )
l _ i a n = l_Ia_neg_ampl ∗ c o s ( f r e q ∗ t + l_Ia_neg_angle −
math_pi / 2 . 0 )
l_ibn = l_Ib_neg_ampl ∗ c o s ( f r e q ∗ t + l_Ib_neg_angle −
math_pi / 2 . 0 )
l _ i c n = l_Ic_neg_ampl ∗ c o s ( f r e q ∗ t + l_Ic_neg_angle −
math_pi / 2 . 0 )
} # end o f v a l u e s s e c t i o n
#−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
equations {
# now copy t h e e v a l u a t e d v a l u e s i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n t o
the
# a c t u a l ou tp ut v a r i a b l e s
Ia_pos_ampl = l_Ia_pos_ampl
Ia_pos_angle = l_Ia_pos_angle
Ib_pos_ampl = l_Ib_pos_angle
Ib_pos_angle = l_Ib_pos_angle
Ic_pos_ampl = l_Ic_pos_angle
Ic_pos_angle = l_Ic_pos_angle
Ia_neg_ampl = l_Ia_neg_ampl
Ia_neg_angle = l_Ia_neg_angle
Ib_neg_ampl = l_Ib_neg_angle
Ib_neg_angle = l_Ib_neg_angle
C.2 MAST Delta Current Reference Generator using RMS Values 111
Ic_neg_ampl = l_Ic_neg_angle
Ic_neg_angle = l_Ic_neg_angle
iap = l_iap
i b p = l_ibp
icp = l_icp
ian = l_ian
i b n = l_ibn
icn = l_icn
} # end o f e q u a t i o n s s e c t i o n
The above MAST file uses a “C” routine called atan2_c to implement 4
quadrant arctan in MAST (which does not have one as a standard part of the
language).
#i n c l u d e <s t d i o . h>
#i n c l u d e <math . h>
/∗ S p e c i f y t h e c o m p l e t e path t o s a b e r A p i . h ∗/
#i n c l u d e " c : \ s y n o p s y s \w−2004.12\ Saber \ i n c l u d e \ s a b e r A p i . h"
_ d e c l s p e c ( d l l e x p o r t ) v o i d _ s t d c a l l ATAN2_C ( d o u b l e ∗ inp , l o n g ∗
ninp , l o n g ∗ i f l , l o n g ∗ n i f l
,
d o u b l e ∗ out , l o n g ∗ nout ,
long ∗ ofl , long ∗ nofl ,
d o u b l e ∗ aundef , l o n g ∗ i e r )
{
double x , y ;
x = inp [ 0 ] ;
y = inp [ 1 ] ;
out [ 0 ] = atan2 ( y , x ) ;
}
C.2 MAST Delta Current Reference Generator

using RMS Values
The file below is used to generate the reference currents for the Delta connected
compensator. It allows the generation of the zero sequence current. Note that
the file works in phasor quantities.
############################################################################
#
# D e l t a C u r r e n t C a l c u l a t o r Template
#
# Written by : Robert Betz
# C r e a t e d : 25/5/2005
#
############################################################################
############################################################################
# DESCRIPTION
############################################################################
# This t e m p l a t e c a l c u l a t e s t h e c u r r e n t s o u r c e v a l u e s t o g i v e t h e
# r e f e r e n c e c u r r e n t s r e q u i r e d out o f t h e t h r e e nodes o f t h e d e l t a
# connected current sources .
# This f i l e c a l c u l a t e s t h e r e f e r e n c e c u r r e n t s f o r t h e t h r e e
# current s o u r c e s in the Delta so that the e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s
# f o r t h e r e f e r e n c e c u r r e n t s a r e s a t i s f i e d , and a t t h e same time
# t h e a v e r a g e powers a r e b a l a n c e d around t h e l o o p . The v a l u e s
# p a s s e d i n t o t h i s f i l e a r e t h e p h a s o r v a l u e s o f t h e phase
# v o l t a g e s and t h e d e s i r e d c u r r e n t . Only t h e c u r r e n t r e f e r e n c e
# f o r one o f t h e d e s i r e d phase has t o be p a s s e d i n s i n c e t h e
# o t h e r s can be s i m p l y d e r i v e d from t h i s a s t h e y a r e by
# d e f i n i t i o n a balanced s e t of currents .
# Note t h a t t h e c u r r e n t and v o l t a g e p h a s o r s a r e e x p r e s s e d i n t h e
# i n p u t s a s AMPLITUDES, and NOT a s t h e rms v a l u e s a s p e r a normal
# phasor .
# The f i l e o u t p u t s t h e time domain r e f e r e n c e v a l u e s a s w e l l a s

# t h e time domain z e r o s e q u e n c e and z e r o s e q u e n c e p h a s o r .
##############################################################################
t e m p l a t e d e l t a _ c u r r e n t s va_amp vb_amp vb_phase ian_amp ian_phase \

time f r e q zero_seq_bool i a b _ r e f i b c _ r e f i c a _ r e f i 0 i0_amp
i0_phase
i n p u t nu va_amp , vb_amp , vb_phase , ian_amp , ian_phase , \

time , f r e q , zero_seq_bool
ou tp u t nu i a b _ r e f , i b c _ r e f , i c a _ r e f , i 0 , i0_amp , i0_phase
f o r e i g n atan2_c
# d e c l a r e l o c a l v e r s i o n s o f a l l t h e o ut pu t v a r i a b l e s
v a l nu l _ i a b _ r e f , l _ i c a _ r e f , l _ i b c _ r e f , l _ i 0 , l_i0_amp ,
l_i0_phase
v a l nu theta_ba , In , gamma , math_pi , two_pi , y , z
#−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
values {
math_pi = 3 . 1 4 1 5 9 2 6 5 3 6
two_pi = 2 ∗ math_pi
l_i0 = 0.0
i f ( time >= 0 . 2 ) {
i f ( zero_seq_bool == 1 ) {
C.2 MAST Delta Current Reference Generator using RMS Values 113
# n o t e t h a t t h e vba a n g l e i s 30 d e g r e e s f o r 120
degree
# p o s i t i v e sequence voltages .
theta_ba = math_pi /6
# negative sequence amplitude .

I n = ian_amp
# now c a r r y out t h e main c a l c u l a t i o n

y = 1 / s q r t ( 3 ) ∗ c o s ( theta_ba − ian_phase −
math_pi / 6 )
z = 1 / s q r t ( 3 ) ∗ c o s ( theta_ba − ian_phase +
math_pi / 2 )
gamma = atan2_c ( s q r t ( 3 ) ∗ ( y + z ) , ( z− y ) )
l_i0_amp = −(y + z ) / c o s (gamma) ∗ I n
l_i0_phase = theta_ba − gamma
# now c h e c k t o s e e i f t h e a m p l i t u d e i s n e g a t i v e −−
i f so
# then add p i t o t h e phase
i f ( l_i0_amp < 0 ) {
l_i0_phase = l_i0_phase + math_pi
l_i0_amp = abs ( l_i0_amp )
}
# c a l c u l a t e t h e time domain v e r s i o n s o f t h e z e r o
sequence
# waveforms .
# Note : a s i n e wave t o c o r r e s p o n d with t h e d r i v i n g
sine
# v o l t a g e waveforms .
l _ i 0 = −l_i0_amp ∗ s i n ( f r e q ∗ time + l_i0_phase )
} # end o f i f ( zero_seq_bool == 1 )
# now c a l c u l a t e t h e c o m p e n s a t i n g c u r r e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o
c a n c e l out
# t h e n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e a t t h e p o i n t o f common c o u p l i n g
.
# NOTE t h a t t h e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d out u s i n g
only the
# n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e ’ a ’ phase and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
negative
# s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s a r e a b a l a n c e d phase s e q u e n c e ( a t
least
# in steady s t a t e ) .
# Note : a s i n e wave t o c o r r e s p o n d with t h e d r i v i n g s i n e
# v o l t a g e waveforms .
l _ i a b _ r e f = ian_amp / s q r t ( 3 ) ∗ s i n ( f r e q ∗ time +
ian_phase − \
7 ∗ math_pi / 6 ) + l _ i 0
l _ i b c _ r e f = ian_amp / s q r t ( 3 ) ∗ s i n ( f r e q ∗ time +
ian_phase − \
math_pi / 2 ) + l _ i 0
l _ i c a _ r e f = ian_amp / s q r t ( 3 ) ∗ s i n ( f r e q ∗ time +
ian_phase − \
11 ∗ math_pi / 6 ) + l _ i 0
} # end o f i f ( time >= 0 . 2 )

else {
l_iab_ref = 0
l_ibc_ref = 0
l_ica_ref = 0
l_i0 = 0
l_i0_amp = 0
l_i0_phase = 0
}
} # end o f v a l u e s s e c t i o n
#−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
equations {
iab_ref = l_iab_ref
ica_ref = l_ica_ref
ibc_ref = l_ibc_ref
i0 = l_i0
i0_amp = l_i0_amp
i0_phase = l_i0_phase
} # end o f e q u a t i o n s s e c t i o n
C.3 Various SciLab Files

This section contains various SciLab files used to provide back-up information for
this report. They are included here only for completeness and for documentation
reasons.
C.3.1 Delta Real Power Components SciLab Script

////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
//
// This f i l e c a l c u l a t e s t h e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r each o f t h e r e a l power
// components i n t h e D e l t a c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e STATCOM.
//
// The f i l e i s d e s i g n e d t o show how t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t s o f t h e r e a l
// power e x p r e s s i o n s change with v a r y i n g phase c h a n g e s o f t h e z e r o
// s e q u e n c e component o f t h e r e a l power e x p r e s s i o n .
// I t a l s o c o n s i d e r s t h e t o t a l c u r r e n t f l o w i n g i n t h e D e l t a −− i . e
the
// normal c u r r e n t f l o w t o s a t i s f y t h e e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s a s w e l l
as the
// z e r o s e q u e n c e component .
//
// Written by : Robert Betz
// C r e a t e d : 11/6/05
//
// S t a t u s : Working
//
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// c l e a r a l l the v a r i a b l e s
clear
C.3 Various SciLab Files 115
// E s t a b l i s h t h e r a n g e o f v a l u e s f o r t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e phase
a l p h a = [ 0 : 0 . 0 1 : 4 ∗ %p i ] ;
// s e t up t h e a n g l e o f t h e \ theta_ { ba } v o l t a g e p h a s o r
theta_ba = 0 . 5 2 3 6 ;
// Now w r i t e t h e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e r e q u i r e d n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e
current
theta_an = 2 . 5 7 5 7 ;
theta_bn = theta_an − 4∗% p i . / 3 . 0 ;
theta_cn = theta_an − 2∗% p i . / 3 . 0 ;
In_m = 8 . 2 6 7 9 ;
// The l i n e v o l t a g e magnitude o f t h e system .

V = 169.46 ./ sqrt ( 2 . 0 ) ;
b = theta_ba − theta_an ;
// c a l c u l a t e t h e v a l u e i n t h e n o t e s c a l l e d \ theta_ { ba } − \ theta_ { an
}
// i . e . t h e d i f f e r e n c e between one o f t h e l i n e −to−l i n e v o l t a g e s and
the
// n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e ’ a ’ phase a n g l e .
// Now c o n v e r t t h e s e t o r e c t a n g u l a r form s o t h a t K i r c h o f f ’ s C u r r e n t
Law can
// be c a r r i e d out .
g e t f ( ’ . / polar_to_rect . s c i ’ )
I a n = p o l a r _ t o _ r e c t (In_m , theta_an )
Ibn = p o l a r _ t o _ r e c t (In_m , theta_bn )
I c n = p o l a r _ t o _ r e c t (In_m , theta_cn )
// Now c a l c u l a t e t h e c u r r e n t s i n each o f t h e d e l t a phase l e g s DUE

TO THE
// NEGATIVE SEQUENCE CURRENTS ALONE.
I a b = −1.0 . / 3 . 0 . ∗ ( I a n − Ibn ) ;
I b c = −1.0 . / 3 . 0 . ∗ ( Ibn − I c n ) ;
I c a = −1.0 . / 3 . 0 . ∗ ( Icn − Ian ) ;
// now w r i t e t h e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e t h r e e r e l e v a n t components o f
the
// r e a l power e x p r e s s i o n s f o r each phase
x = 1 . 0 . / s q r t ( 3 . 0 ) . ∗ c o s ( b − ( 5 . 0 . ∗ %p i ) . / 6 )
y = 1 . 0 . / s q r t ( 3 . 0 ) . ∗ c o s ( b − (% p i ) . / 6 )
z = 1 . 0 . / s q r t ( 3 . 0 ) . ∗ c o s ( b + %p i . / 2 )
// c a l c u l a t e t h e e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e c r o s s o v e r p o i n t
gam = atan ( ( y − z ) , −( s q r t ( 3 . 0 ) . ∗ ( y + z ) ) )
I_0_n = −(y+z ) . / c o s ( gam )
// Now work out t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t a n g l e

alpha_0_1 = theta_ba − gam
alpha_0_2 = alpha_0_1 + 2 . 0 . ∗ %p i
// work out t h e a c t u a l a m p l i t u d e o f t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t .
I_0_m = I_0_n . ∗ In_m ;
// c o n v e r t t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t t o r e c t a n g u l a r form
I_0 = p o l a r _ t o _ r e c t (I_0_m, alpha_0_1 ) ;
// Now c a l c u l a t e each o f t h e phase c u r r e n t s .

Iab0 = I a b + I_0
Ibc0 = I b c + I_0
Ica0 = I c a + I_0
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e new peak phase c u r r e n t s i n c l u d i n g t h e z e r o

sequence
[ Iab0_m , ang_Iab0 ] = p o l a r ( Iab0 )
[ Ibc0_m , ang_Ibc0 ] = polar ( Ibc0 )
[ Ica0_m , ang_Ica0 ] = polar ( Ica0 )
a = theta_ba − a l p h a ;
pr1 = V . ∗ In_m . / s q r t ( 2 . 0 ) . ∗ ( I_0_n . ∗ c o s ( a ) − x ) ;

pr2 = V . ∗ In_m . / s q r t ( 2 . 0 ) . ∗ ( I_0_n . ∗ c o s ( a + ( 4 . 0 . ∗ %p i )
./3.0) − y) ;
pr3 = V . ∗ In_m . / s q r t ( 2 . 0 ) . ∗ ( I_0_n . ∗ c o s ( a + ( 2 . 0 . ∗ %p i )
./3.0) − z) ;
pab = V . ∗ In_m . / s q r t ( 2 . 0 ) . ∗ ( I_0_n . ∗ c o s ( theta_ba − alpha_0_1 )

− ...
1 . 0 . / s q r t ( 3 . 0 ) . ∗ c o s ( theta_ba − theta_an − ( 5 . 0 . ∗ %p i ) . /
6) )
scf (0) ;
c l f (0) ;
p l o t ( alpha , pr1 , ’ k − ’)
p l o t ( alpha , pr2 , ’ k−−’)
p l o t ( alpha , pr2 , ’ r − . ’ )
xgrid
x t i t l e ( [ ’ Real Power Components ’ ; ’ f o r t h r e e l e g s ’ ] , ’ Alpha phase (
rad ) ’ , ’ Component v a l u e ’ )
t o t a l _ p o w e r = pr1 + pr2 + pr3 ;
// p l o t ( alpha , total_power , ’ b − ’)
C.3.2 Passive Balancing Circuit SciLab Scripts

The following SciLab file calculates the passive components to balance an un-
balanced load using a Delta connection of the components. Once these have
been evaluated then a Star-Delta transformation is used to get the equivalent
Wye connected passive components.
///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
//
// This f i l e c a l c u l a t e s t h e d e l t a c o n n e c t e d a d m i t t a n c e s r e q u i r e d t o
// b a l a n c e a wye c o n n e c t e d l o a d with a r b i t r a r y c o n d u c t a n c e s . Note
that
// t h e wye c o n n e c t e d l o a d o n l y c o n s i d e r s c o n d u c t a n c e s , s i n c e an
arbtrary
// wye l o a d can be c o n v e r t e d t o a d e l t a one with o n l y c o n d u c t a n c e s

by s i m p l y
// p u t t i n g a s u s c e p t a n c e i n p a r a l l e l with t h e d e l t a c o n v e r t e d l o a d
to cancel
// t h e s u s c e p t a n c e o f t h e l o a d .
//
// Once t h e d e l t a c o n n e c t e d v a l u e s t o a c h i e v e b a l a n c e have been
calculated
// then i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e e q u i v a l e n t wye c o n n e c t e d
balancing
// a d m i t t a n c e s . The power a c r o s s each o f t h e phase l e g s o f t h e wye
connected
// a r e then c a l c u l a t e d .
//
// Written by : Robert Betz
// C r e a t e d : 11/6/05
//
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
//
// CAVEATS
//
// Because t h i s program works i n a d m i t t a n c e s , then t h e r e i s t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y of
// g e t t i n g d i v i d e by z e r o e r r o r s −− f o r example i f a phase i s open
c i r c u i t then
// we end up with an a d m i t t a n c e o f z e r o , and hence t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
o f 0/0 t y p e e r r o r s
// i n some o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e i f an impedance i s
i n f i n i t y represent it
// with a v e r y s m a l l , BUT NOT ZERO impedance .
//
//
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
// c l e a r all variables
clear
// s u p p l y f r e q u e n c y i n Hz
f = 50;
omega = 2 .∗% p i . ∗ f ;
// rms v a l u e o f t h e v o l t a g e s
Vrms = 1 0 0 . 0 . / s q r t ( 2 ) ;
// s e t up t h e s u p p l y v o l t a g e s a s rms v a l u e s − note that the

v o l t a g e s in the simulation
// a r e s o n e waves , hence t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n by %i
Varms = %i . ∗ ( Vrms + %i . ∗ 0 ) ;
Vbrms = %i . ∗ Vrms . ∗ ( c o s (−2 . ∗ %p i . / 3 ) + %i . ∗ s i n (−2 . ∗ %p i
. / 3) ) ;
Vcrms = %i . ∗ Vrms . ∗ ( c o s (−4 . ∗ %p i . / 3 ) + %i . ∗ s i n (−4 . ∗ %p i
. / 3) ) ;
// f i r s t l y c a l c u l a t e t h e l i n e t o l i n e v o l t a g e s
Vabrms = Varms − Vbrms
Vbcrms = Vbrms − Vcrms
Vcarms = Vcrms − Varms
// i n p u t t h e r e s i s t a n c e s o f t h e wye c o n n e c t e d l o a d
Ra = i n p u t ( " \ n I n p u t Ra" ) ;
Rb = i n p u t ( " I n p u t Rb" ) ;
Rc = i n p u t ( " I n p u t Rc " ) ;
// c a l c u l a t e t h e phase c u r r e n t u s i n g phase r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s
Ib_l_ph = ( Vbcrms . ∗ Ra − Vabrms . ∗ Rc ) . / ( Rc . ∗ Ra + Rc . ∗ Rb +
Ra . ∗ Rb)
Vb_l_ph = Rb . ∗ Ib_l_ph
// work out t h e p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s
[ Ib_l_ph_mag , Ib_l_ph_theta ] = p o l a r ( Ib_l_ph ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ \ nB phase l o a d c u r r e n t rms magnitude = %f \n ’ , Ib_l_ph_mag )
p r i n t f ( ’ \ nB phase l o a d c u r r e n t a n g l e = %f \n ’ , Ib_l_ph_theta . ∗ 180
. / %p i )
// Calculate the conductances .

Ga = 1 . 0 . / Ra ;
Gb = 1 . 0 . / Rb ;
Gc = 1 . 0 . / Rc ;
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\n
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>\
n\n ’ )
// Now a p p l y t h e wye−>d e l t a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o t h e s e v a l u e s
p r i n t f ( ’THE DELTA EQUIVALENT CONDUCTANCES\n ’ )
p r i n t f(’−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−\n ’ )
Gt = Ga + Gb + Gc
Gab = Ga . ∗ Gb . / Gt
Gbc = Gb . ∗ Gc . / Gt
Gca = Gc . ∗ Ga . / Gt
// now calculate the unbalanced c u r r e n t s

// now calculate t h e c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g i n t o t h e d e l t a network
Iuarms = Vabrms . ∗ Gab − Vcarms . ∗ Gca
Iubrms = Vbcrms . ∗ Gbc − Vabrms . ∗ Gab
Iucrms = Vcarms . ∗ Gca − Vbcrms . ∗ Gbc
// As a c h e c k u s e t h e d e l t a t o wye t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o make s u r e t h a t
// we g e t back t h e o r i g i n a l a d m i t t a n c e s
Zab = 1 . / Gab ;
Zbc = 1 . / Gbc ;
Zca = 1 . / Gca ;
Zt = Zab + Zbc + Zca ;

Za = Zab . ∗ Zca . / Zt
Zb = Zab . ∗ Zbc . / Zt
Zc = Zbc . ∗ Zca . / Zt
// Now a p p l y t h e e x p r e s s i o n s t o c a l c u l a t e t h e b a l a n c i n g a d m i t t a n c e s
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\n ’ )
p r i n t f ( ’THE DELTA BALANCING SUSCEPTANCES\n ’ )
p r i n t f(’−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−\n ’ )
Bab = %i . ∗ ( Gca − Gbc ) . / s q r t ( 3 )
Bbc = %i . ∗ ( Gab − Gca ) . / s q r t ( 3 )
Bca = %i . ∗ ( Gbc − Gab ) . / s q r t ( 3 )
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e b a l a n c i n g c u r r e n t s
// f i r s t l y c a l c u l a t e t h e l i n e t o l i n e v o l t a g e s
Vabrms = Varms − Vbrms
Vbcrms = Vbrms − Vcrms
Vcarms = Vcrms − Varms
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g i n t o t h e d e l t a network
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n C u r r e n t s c a l c u l a t e d from s u s c e p t a n c e s \n\n ’ )
Iarms = Vabrms . ∗ Bab − Vcarms . ∗ Bca
Ibrms = Vbcrms . ∗ Bbc − Vabrms . ∗ Bab
I c r m s = Vcarms . ∗ Bca − Vbcrms . ∗ Bbc
// [ Ia , theta_a ] = p o l a r ( Iarms )
// [ Ib , theta_b ] = p o l a r ( Ibrms )
// [ I c , theta_c ] = p o l a r ( I c r m s )
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e u n b a l a n c e d c u r r e n t and t h e
balanced
// c u r r e n t
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\nThe t o t a l c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g ( under s u s c e p t a n c e c a l c ) a r e
: \ n\n ’ )
I a t = Iarms + Iuarms
I b t = Ibrms + Iubrms
I c t = I c r m s + Iucrms
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e c u r r e n t p h a s o r s
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\ n C u r r e n t s a s p h a s o r s ( under s u s c e p t a n c e c a l c ) \n\n ’ )
[ Ia , theta_a ] = p o l a r ( I a t ) ;
[ Ib , theta_b ] = p o l a r ( I b t ) ;
[ I c , theta_c ] = p o l a r ( I c t ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ I a = %f ; Theta_a ( deg ) = %f \n ’ , Ia , theta_a . ∗ 180 . / %p i )

p r i n t f ( ’ I b = %f ; Theta_b ( deg ) = %f \n ’ , Ib , theta_b . ∗ 180 . / %p i )
p r i n t f ( ’ I c = %f ; Theta_c ( deg ) = %f \n ’ , I c , theta_c . ∗ 180 . / %p i )
// Now c a l c u l a t e t h e component v a l u e s f o r t h e d e l t a c o n n e c t e d l o a d .
i f imag ( Bab ) < 0 then
La_d = 1 . 0 . / ( omega . ∗ abs ( imag ( Bab ) ) ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ D e l t a i n d u c t o r Lab = %f \n ’ , La_d )
p r i n t f ( ’ Za=%f \n\n ’ , omega . ∗ La_d )
else
// Bab >= 0
i f Bab == 0 then
p r i n t f ( ’ Bab i s z e r o \n ’ )
e l s e // Bab >0
Ca_d = abs ( imag ( Bab ) ) . / omega ;
p r i n t f ( ’ D e l t a c a p a c i t o r Cab = %f \n ’ , Ca_d)
p r i n t f ( ’ Za=%f \n\n ’ , 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Ca_d) )
end
end
i f imag ( Bbc ) < 0 then

Lb_d = 1 . 0 . / ( omega . ∗ abs ( imag ( Bbc ) ) ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ D e l t a i n d u c t o r Lbc = %f \n ’ , Lb_d)
p r i n t f ( ’ Zb=%f \n\n ’ , omega . ∗ Lb_d)
else
// Bbc >= 0
i f Bbc == 0 then
p r i n t f ( ’ Bbc i s z e r o \n ’ )
e l s e // Bbc > 0
Cb_d = abs ( imag ( Bbc ) ) . / omega ;
p r i n t f ( ’ D e l t a c a p a c i t o r Cbc = %f \n ’ , Cb_d)
p r i n t f ( ’ Zb=%f \n\n ’ , 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Cb_d) )
end
end
i f imag ( Bca ) < 0 then

Lc_d = 1 . 0 . / ( omega . ∗ abs ( imag ( Bca ) ) ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ D e l t a i n d u c t o r Lca = %f \n ’ , Lc_d )
p r i n t f ( ’ Zc=%f \n\n ’ , omega . ∗ Lc_d )
else
// Bca >= 0
i f Bca == 0 then
p r i n t f ( ’ Bca i s z e r o \n ’ )
else
Cc_d = abs ( imag ( Bca ) ) . / omega ;
p r i n t f ( ’ D e l t a c a p a c i t o r Cca = %f \n ’ , Cc_d)
p r i n t f ( ’ Zc=%f \n\n ’ , 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Cc_d) )
end
end
// Now c a l c u l a t e t h e v a l u e s o f t h e b a l a n c i n g c u r r e n t s from t h e
impedances
// c a l c u l a t e d from t h e components c a l c u l a t e d −− NOTE f o r d e l t a
circuit
// f i r s t l y c a l c u l a t e t h e impedances
i f imag ( Bab ) < 0 then
// i n d u c t o r
Zab = %i . ∗ omega . ∗ La_d
e l s e // Bab >= 0
i f Bab == 0 then
p r i n t f ( ’ Bab i s z e r o \n ’ )
else
// c a p a c i t o r
Zab = −%i . ∗ 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Ca_d)
end
end
i f imag ( Bbc ) < 0 then

// i n d u c t o r
Zbc = %i . ∗ omega . ∗ Lb_d
e l s e // Bbc >= 0
i f Bbc == 0 then
p r i n t f ( ’ Bbc i s z e r o \n ’ )
else
Zbc = −%i . ∗ 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Cb_d)
end
end
i f imag ( Bca ) < 0 then

// i n d u c t o r
Zca = %i . ∗ omega . ∗ Lc_d
e l s e // Bab >= 0
i f Bca == 0 then
p r i n t f ( ’ Bca i s z e r o \n ’ )
else
Zca = −%i . ∗ 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Cc_d)

end
end
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e c u r r e n t s u s i n g t h e impedance v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d
from t h e
// component v a l u e s worked out .
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n C u r r e n t s c a l c u l a t e d from impedances \n\n ’ )

Iarms = Vabrms . / Zab − Vcarms . / Zca
Ibrms = Vbcrms . / Zbc − Vabrms . / Zab
I c r m s = Vcarms . / Zca − Vbcrms . / Zbc
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e u n b a l a n c e d c u r r e n t and t h e
balanced
// c u r r e n t
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\nThe t o t a l c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g from impedance c a l c u l a t i o n
a r e : \ n\n ’ )
I a t = Iarms + Iuarms
I b t = Ibrms + Iubrms
I c t = I c r m s + Iucrms
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e c u r r e n t p h a s o r s
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\ n C u r r e n t s under impedance c a l c u l a t i o n a s p h a s o r s : \ n\n ’ )
[ Ia , theta_a ] = p o l a r ( I a t ) ;
[ Ib , theta_b ] = p o l a r ( I b t ) ;
[ I c , theta_c ] = p o l a r ( I c t ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ I a = %f ; Theta_a ( deg ) = %f \n ’ , Ia , theta_a . ∗ 180 . / %p i )

p r i n t f ( ’ I b = %f ; Theta_b ( deg ) = %f \n ’ , Ib , theta_b . ∗ 180 . / %p i )
p r i n t f ( ’ I c = %f ; Theta_c ( deg ) = %f \n ’ , I c , theta_c . ∗ 180 . / %p i )
// Now c a l c u l a t e t h e e q u i v a l e n t wye c o n n e c t e d l o a d f o r t h e
balancing c i r c u i t
// Check t o make s u r e t h a t t h e denominator i s not z e r o
B_temp = Bab . ∗ Bbc + Bbc . ∗ Bca + Bca . ∗ Bab ;
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\n ’ )
p r i n t f ( ’THE WYE BALANCING SUSCEPTANCES\n ’ )
p r i n t f(’−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−\n ’ )
i f ( Bbc <> 0 . 0 ) then
Ba = B_temp . / Bbc
else
p r i n t f ( ’ Bbc i s z e r o ! \ n ’ )
i f B_temp == 0 then
p r i n t f ( ’ Ba = 0 => Xa = i n f i n i t y \n\n ’ )
Ba = −%i . ∗ 1 e −10;
else
// e n t e r h e r e i f Bbc = 0 , B_temp <>0
p r i n t f ( ’ Ba = i n f i n i t y => Xa = 0\n\n ’ )
// make Ba a l a r g e number
Ba = −%i . ∗ 1 e8 ;
end
end
i f ( Bca <> 0 . 0 ) then

Bb = B_temp . / Bca
else
p r i n t f ( ’ Bca i s z e r o ! \ n ’ )
p r i n t f ( ’ Bb = 0 => Xa = i n f i n i t y \n\n ’ )
Bb = −%i . ∗ 1 e −10;
else
// e n t e r h e r e i f Bca = 0 , B_temp <>0
p r i n t f ( ’ Bb = i n f i n i t y => Xa = 0\n\ ns ’ )
// make Bb a l a r g e number
Bb = −%i . ∗ 1 e8 ;
end
end
i f ( Bab <> 0 . 0 ) then

Bc = B_temp . / Bab
else
p r i n t f ( ’ Bab i s z e r o ! \ n ’ )
p r i n t f ( ’ Bc = 0 => Xa = i n f i n i t y \n ’ )
Bc = −%i . ∗ 1 e −10;
else
// e n t e r h e r e i f Bab = 0 , B_temp <>0
p r i n t f ( ’ Bc = i n f i n i t y => Xa = 0\n ’ )
// make Bc a l a r g e number
Bc = −%i . ∗ 1 e8 ;
end
end
// now c a l c u l a t e t h e p h y s i c a l components t o implement t h e b a l a n c e

circuit
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\n ’ )
p r i n t f ( ’PHYSICAL COMPONENT VALUES\n ’ )
p r i n t f(’−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−\n\n ’ )
i f imag ( Ba ) < 0 then

La = 1 . 0 . / ( omega . ∗ abs ( imag ( Ba ) ) ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ I n d u c t o r La = %f \n ’ , La )
p r i n t f ( ’ Za=%f \n\n ’ , omega . ∗ La )
else
// Ba >= 0
Ca = abs ( imag ( Ba ) ) . / omega ;
p r i n t f ( ’ C a p a c i t o r Ca = %f \n ’ , Ca )
p r i n t f ( ’ Za=%f \n\n ’ , 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Ca ) )
end
i f imag (Bb) < 0 then

Lb = 1 . 0 . / ( omega . ∗ abs ( imag (Bb) ) ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ I n d u c t o r Lb = %f \n ’ , Lb )
p r i n t f ( ’ Zb=%f \n\n ’ , omega . ∗ Lb )
else
// Bb >= 0
Cb = abs ( imag (Bb) ) . / omega ;
p r i n t f ( ’ C a p a c i t o r Cb = %f \n ’ , Cb)
p r i n t f ( ’ Zb=%f \n\n ’ , 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Cb) )
end
i f imag ( Bc ) < 0 then

Lc = 1 . 0 . / ( omega . ∗ abs ( imag ( Bc ) ) ) ;
p r i n t f ( ’ I n d u c t o r Lc = %f \n ’ , Lc )
p r i n t f ( ’ Zc=%f \n\n ’ , omega . ∗ Lc )
else
// Bc >= 0
Cc = abs ( imag ( Bc ) ) . / omega ;
p r i n t f ( ’ C a p a c i t o r Cc = %f \n ’ , Cc )
p r i n t f ( ’ Zc=%f \n\n ’ , 1 . / ( omega . ∗ Cc ) )

end
p r i n t f ( ’ \ n\n
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<\
n\n ’ )
C.3.3 Calculation of the ~I0 Zero Sequence Current in Delta

Compensator.
The following file calculates the magnitude and angle of the zero sequence cur-
rent that must be injected into a Delta connected compensator to balance the
phase powers in the compensator. It also calculates the individual currents in
the Delta connected current sources of the compensator.
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
//
// R e v i s i o n 1 . 2 2005/09/05 1 1 : 5 2 : 4 4 reb538
// j u s t a t e s t t o s e e i f v e r s i n c o n t r o l working OK
//
// R e v i s i o n 1 . 1 2005/09/05 1 1 : 5 0 : 5 8 reb538
// I n i t i a l r e v i s i o n
//
//
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
clear
// s e t up any c o n s t a n t s
// a n g l e o f Vab p h a s o r
theta_ab = 0 . 0 ;
// s e t up t h e r a n g e o f a n g l e s f o r t h e n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e
theta_an = [ 0 : 0 . 1 : 2 . ∗ %p i ] ;
y = 1 . / s q r t ( 3 ) . ∗ c o s ( theta_ab − theta_an − %p i . / 6 ) ;
z = 1 . / s q r t ( 3 ) . ∗ c o s ( theta_ab − theta_an + %p i . / 2 ) ;
gam = atan ( ( z − y ) , s q r t ( 3 ) . ∗ ( y + z ) ) ;
// a n g l e o f t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t
alpha_0 = theta_ab − gam ;
// n o r m a l i s e d a m p l i t u d e o f t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t .
I_0d = − ( y + z ) . / c o s ( gam ) ;
c l f (0) ;
f 0=s c f ( 0 ) ;
p l o t 2 d ( theta_an , alpha_0 ) ;
c l f (1) ;
f 1=s c f ( 1 ) ;
p l o t 2 d ( theta_an , I_0d ) ;
// g e n e r a t e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s .
g e t f ( ’ . / polar_to_rect . s c i ’ )
Iann = p o l a r _ t o _ r e c t ( 1 , theta_an ) ;
Ibnn = p o l a r _ t o _ r e c t ( 1 , theta_an + 2 . ∗ %p i . / 3 ) ;
I c n n = p o l a r _ t o _ r e c t ( 1 , theta_an + 4 . ∗ %p i . / 3 ) ;
// g e n e r a t e r e c t a n u l a r e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t
I0_d = p o l a r _ t o _ r e c t ( I_0d , alpha_0 ) ;
// Now form the e x p r e s s i o n s f o r the currents

I_ab0_n = 1 . / 3 . ∗ ( Iann − Ibnn ) + I0_d ;
I_bc0_n = 1 . / 3 . ∗ ( Ibnn − Icnn ) + I0_d ;
I_ca0_n = 1 . / 3 . ∗ ( Icnn − Iann ) + I0_d ;
// now g e n e r a t e t h e magnitudes o f t h e c u r r e n t s
I_ab0_m = abs ( I_ab0_n ) ;

I_bc0_m = abs ( I_bc0_n ) ;
I_ca0_m = abs ( I_ca0_n ) ;
// now p l o t t h e magnitudes a g a i n s t theta_an
c l f (2) ;
f2 = scf (2) ;
p l o t ( theta_an , I_ab0_m , ’ k − ’) ;
p l o t ( theta_an , I_bc0_m , ’ k−−’) ;
p l o t ( theta_an , I_ca0_m , ’k −. ’) ;
C.3.4 ~ 0 for Wye

Calculation of Zero Sequence Voltage V
STATCOM with Voltage Unbalance - Matlab Script
This is a Matlab script file that allows the input of a source voltage unbalance,
and then through a series of symmetrical component calculations finds the zero
sequence voltage that needs to be injected in order to make the average real
power in the individual phases of a wye connected STATCOM zero. It should
be noted that the STATCOM is sinking both positive and negative sequence
phasor currents of arbitrary phase angle. This implicitly means that the legs of
the STATCOM have been implemented using current sources.
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%
% I d : wye_power_bal_zero_seq_volt_inj .m, v 1 . 2 2007/01/14 1 4 : 3 8 : 3 6
e c t \ r e b 5 3 8 Exp
%
% Zero s e q u e n c e v o l t a g e i n j e c t i o n program f o r t h e WYE c o n n e c t e d
% S t a t i c Compensator (STATCOM) .
%
% Revision : 1.2
%
% C r e a t e d on : January 1 2 , 2007
% C r e a t e d by : Robert Betz
%
% L a s t m o d i f i e d : Date : 2007/01/14 1 4 : 3 8 : 3 6
% M o d i f i e d by : Author : e c t \ r e b 5 3 8
%
% This program a l l o w s t h e i n p u t o f an a r b i t r a r y s e t o f t h r e e
% phase v a l u e s , then g e n e r a t e s t h e s y m m e t r i c a l components o f
% t h i s waveform . Using t h e s e s y m m e t r i c a l components , t h e
% program then c a l c u l a t e s t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e v o l t a g e p h a s o r
% t h a t would need t o be i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e wye c o n n e c t e d STATCOM
% system t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l a v e r a g e phase powers o f t h e
% STATCOM t o z e r o −− i . e . t h a t r e a l power t o t h e STATCOM i s z e r o .
%
% NB: The wye c o n n e c t e d STATCOM i s assumed t o NOT have a n e u t r a l
% connection . T h e r e f o r e t h e r e can be no z e r o s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s
% f l o w i n g i n t o t h e STATCOM.
%
% I t i s assumed i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n s below t h a t t h e STATCOM c o n t r o l
% i s such t h a t i t i s d e l i v e r i n g both p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e
% c u r r e n t s , and t h e r e a r e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e v o l t a g e s
% p r e s e n t on t h e t e r m i n a l s o f t h e STATCOM. No p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e s
for
% t h e s e c u r r e n t s a r e assumed . The c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d out f o r
% g e n e r a l v a l u e s o f t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s , s i n c e t h e p o s i t i v e and
negative
% s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s a r e d e f i n e d by t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e c o n t r o l
% s t r a t e g i e s b e i n g employed .
%
% The b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n made i n t h i s work i s t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
% r e a l power b a l a n c e i s s e t t o be z e r o −− i . e . t h a t VI\ c o s \ p h i
% e q u i v a l e n t f o r both t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e components
% a r e z e r o , and t h e STATCOM i s s u p p l y i n g VArs t o t h e system .
%
% The s y m m e t r i c a l component c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d out u s i n g
% a m a t r i x form o f t h e s y m m e t r i c a l components t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
% as developed in :
%
% " Elements o f Power System A n a l y s i s "
%
% by William D. S t e v e n s o n J r . ISBN 0−07−061285−4
%
%
% Log : wye_power_bal_zero_seq_volt_inj .m, v
% Revision 1.2 2007/01/14 1 4 : 3 8 : 3 6 ect \ reb538
% Have c a r r i e d out major c h a n g e s t o t h i s f i l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e z e r o
sequence
% i n j e c t i o n t o e q u a l i s e t h e powers i n t h e phase l e g s when t h e r e a r e
% u n b a l a n c e d v o l t a g e s a t t h e s o u r c e . The f i l e seems t o work a f t e r
considerable
% a l t e r a t i o n s . One o f t h e key c h a n g e s was t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f t h e
source
% s e q u e n c e phase v o l t a g e s t o l i n e v o l t a g e s , and then back a g a i n .
This
% p r o c e s s e l i m i n a t e s t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e from t h e STATCOM and c h a n g e s
the
% calculations .
%
% Revision 1.1 2007/01/12 0 6 : 2 3 : 4 3 ect \ reb538
% F i r s t Matlab v e r s i o n o f t h e s e f i l e s . Have been t e s t e s s o t h a t
they perform
% t h e same a s t h e S c i l a b v e r s i o n , but minus t h e S c i l a b numeric
problem
% of course .
%
% Revision 1.2 2007/01/12 0 5 : 2 8 : 2 6 ect \ reb538
% Have o n l y g o t p a r t o f t h e way i n t o d e b u g g i n g t h i s f i l e and have
found what
% a p p e a r s t o be a major bug i n S c i l a b t h a t means t h a t any work I m
doing
% with i t i s p o t e n t i a l l y f l a w e d . The bug i s :
%
% −−>20 ∗ exp(% i ∗ 2 ∗ %p i / 3 )
% ans =
%
% −11. + 1 7 . 3 2 0 5 0 8 i
%
% which i s i n c o r r e c t . The r e a l p a r t s h o u l d be − 1 0 . 0 .
%
% Revision 1.1 2007/01/12 0 2 : 2 9 : 4 6 ect \ reb538
% I n i t i a l v e r s i o n o f t h i s program . Has some c o n t e n t , but i t i s
incomplete at
% t h e moment .
%
%
%
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
% Clear a l l the v a r i a b l e s
%
clear
% D e f i n e a few c o n s t a n t s used
%
a = exp ( i ∗ 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) ;
% F i r s t l y i n p u t t h e t h r e e phase waveforms t h a t i s t o have

%
% RMS a m p l i t u d e s
%
va_rms = 8 0 . 0 ;
vb_rms = 1 0 0 . 0 ;
vc_rms = 1 0 0 . 0 ;
% Now d e f i n e t h e v o l t a g e s t h a t ap pe ar on t h e t e r m i n a l s o f t h e
% STATCOM.
%
% NB: THE A−PHASE VOLTAGE I S THE REFERENCE FOR ALL THE PHASORS
% IN THE SYSTEM.
%
v a s = va_rms ;
vbs = vb_rms ∗ a ^ 2 ;
v c s = vc_rms ∗ a ;
% Now compute t h e s y m m e t r i c a l components o f t h e v o l t a g e s .

% Form t h e V row v e c t o r and c a l l t h e s y m m e t r i c a l components
% function . This f u n c t i o n r e t u r n s a m a t r i x c o n t a i n i n g t h e
% p o s i t i v e , n e g a t i v e and z e r o s e q u e n c e components o f t h e
% v e c t o r p a s s e d i n . The f u n c t i o n r e t u r n s a m a t r i x with
% t h e p o s i t i v e s e q u e n c e components i n t h e f i r s t column o f
% t h e matrix , t h e n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e i n t h e s e c o n d column ,
% and t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e i n t h e t h i r d row .
%
V = [ vas , vbs , v c s ] ;
Vsym = sym_components (V) ;
% E x t r a c t out t h e a−phase components t o u s e i n t h e g e n e r a l

% power e x p r e s s i o n s below .
%
va0 = Vsym ( 1 , 3 ) ;
vap = Vsym ( 1 , 1 ) ;
van = Vsym ( 1 , 2 ) ;
% As a c h e c k we can recompute t h e a−phase v o l t a g e u s i n g t h e

% s y m m e t r i c a l components .
%
va_comp = va0 + vap + van ;
vb_comp = va0 + vap ∗ a^2 + van ∗ a ;
vc_comp = va0 + vap ∗ a + van ∗ a ^ 2 ;
% Now compute t h e l i n e v o l t a g e s by u s i n g t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e

% s e q u e n c e v o l t a g e computed from t h e phase v o l t a g e s . Note t h a t
there
% ca nn ot be a z e r o s e q u e n c e v o l t a g e i n t h e l i n e −l i n e v o l t a g e s .
%
% The c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r f o r p h a s o r s from phase t o l i n e and v i c e
versa
%
ph_to_line_p = s q r t ( 3 ) ∗ exp ( i ∗ p i / 6 ) ;
line_to_ph_p = 1 / ( ph_to_line_p ) ;
ph_to_line_n = s q r t ( 3 ) ∗ exp ( i ∗ − p i / 6 ) ;
line_to_ph_n = 1 / ( ph_to_line_n ) ;
% P o s i t i v e sequence l i n e voltages
%
Vsym_line ( : , 1 ) = Vsym ( : , 1 ) ∗ ph_to_line_p ;
% Negative sequence l i n e v o l t a g e s
%
Vsym_line ( : , 2 ) = Vsym ( : , 2 ) ∗ ph_to_line_n ;
% Zero s e q u e n c e l i n e v o l t a g e s −− a s t h e s e a l l s u b t r a c t from each

other to
% give zero .
%
Vsym_line ( : , 3 ) = [ 0 + i ∗ 0 , 0 + i ∗ 0 , 0 + i ∗ 0 ] ’ ;
% Now c o n v e r t t h e l i n e −l i n e s e q u e n c e components back t o t h e

% phase s e q u e n c e components . Note t h a t t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e component
% t h a t was p r e s e n t i n t h e o r i g i n a l phase v o l t a g e s has been l o s t i n
this
% process .
%
line_to_ph_conv = [ line_to_ph_p , 0 , 0;
0, line_to_ph_n , 0 ;
0, 0, 0];
% An i m p o r t a n t p o i n t h e r e i s t h e t h e r e i s not no z e r o z e q u e n c e
component
% i n t h e phase v o l t a g e s . The n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e component i s t h e

same a s
% p r e v i o u s l y , t h e r e f o r e t h e phase v o l t a g e s s e e n a t t h i s p o i n t a r e
% DIFFERENT from t h o s e s e e n a t t h e s o u r c e end .
%
Vsym_ph = Vsym_line ∗ line_to_ph_conv ;
% E x t r a c t out t h e a−phase components t o u s e i n t h e g e n e r a l

regenerate
% t h e r e s u l t a n t phase p h a s o r s .
%
va0_ph = Vsym_ph ( 1 , 3 ) ;
vap_ph = Vsym_ph ( 1 , 1 ) ;
van_ph = Vsym_ph ( 1 , 2 ) ;
% As a c h e c k we can recompute t h e a−phase v o l t a g e u s i n g t h e

% s y m m e t r i c a l components .
%
va_comp_ph = va0_ph + vap_ph + van_ph ;
vb_comp_ph = va0_ph + vap_ph ∗ a^2 + van_ph ∗ a ;
vc_comp_ph = va0_ph + vap_ph ∗ a + van_ph ∗ a ^ 2 ;
% Now g e t t h e r e f e r e n c e a n g l e f o r t h e p o s i t i v e s e q u e n c e
theta_pv = a n g l e (Vsym_ph ( 1 , 1 ) ) ;
% Get t h e r e f e r e n c e a n g l e f o r t h e n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e .
%
theta_nv = a n g l e (Vsym_ph ( 1 , 2 ) ) ;
% We r e q u i r e t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e component
% amplitudes
%
vp_rms = abs (Vsym_ph ( 1 , 1 ) ) ;
vn_rms = abs (Vsym_ph ( 1 , 2 ) ) ;
v0_rms = abs (Vsym_ph ( 1 , 3 ) ) ;
alpha_v0 = a n g l e (Vsym_ph ( 1 , 3 ) ) ;
% Now d e f i n e v a l u e s f o r t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s
% t h a t a r e f o l l o w i n g i n t o t h e STATCOM. Note t h a t i t i s assumed
that
% t h e WYE c o n n e c t e d STATCOM has no n e u t r a l p o i n t c o n n e c t i o n ,
therefore
% t h e r e can be no z e r o s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g i n t o t h e STATCOM.
%
% F i r s t l y d e f i n e t h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e s e q u e n c e components .
%
ip_rms = 3 0 ;
in_rms = 2 0 ;
% D e f i n e t h e phase a n g l e s o f t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e
phasors .
% These a r e d e f i n e d r e l a t i v e t o t h e a−phase v o l t a g e .
%
% t h e t a _ p i = exp ( i . ∗ [ 0 : 0 . 0 1 : 2 ∗ p i ] ) ;
% t h e t a _ n i = exp ( i . ∗ [ 0 : 0 . 0 1 : 2 ∗ p i ] ) ;
% t h e t a _ p i = theta_pv − p i / 2 ;
% S e t an a r b i t r a r y n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t a n g l e
theta_ni = pi / 5 ;
% The f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n s e t s t h e p o s i t i v e s e q u e n c e power a n g l e
to
% compensate f o r any n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e t h r e e phase power f l o w i n g .
This
% w i l l mean t h a t t h e t h r e e phase power w i l l be z e r o .
%
t h e t a _ p i = theta_pv − a c o s (−vn_rms ∗ in_rms / ( vp_rms ∗ ip_rms )
∗...
c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ n i ) ) ;
% Now d e f i n e t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e p h a s o r s .
%
iap = ip_rms . ∗ exp ( i ∗ t h e t a _ p i ) ;
ibp = ip_rms . ∗ a^2 . ∗ exp ( i ∗ t h e t a _ p i ) ;
icp = ip_rms . ∗ a . ∗ exp ( i ∗ t h e t a _ p i ) ;
i a n = in_rms . ∗ exp ( i ∗ t h e t a _ n i ) ;
i b n = in_rms . ∗ a . ∗ exp ( i ∗ t h e t a _ n i ) ;
i c n = in_rms . ∗ a^2 . ∗ exp ( i ∗ t h e t a _ n i ) ;
% Now d e f i n e t h e phase c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g i n t o t h e wye c o n n e c t e d

STATCOM.
% Note t h a t t h e aye has no n e u t r a l s o t h e r e i s no need t o i n c l u d e
% t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e component .
%
ia = iap + ian ;
ib = ibp + ibn ;
ic = icp + icn ;
% Now c a l c u l a t e t h e f u l l r e a l power e x p r e s s i o n s a s a c h e c k t h a t
everything
% i s OK.
%
p a _ f u l l = v0_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( alpha_v0 − t h e t a _ p i ) + v0_rms ∗
in_rms ∗ . . .
c o s ( alpha_v0 − t h e t a _ n i ) + vp_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_pv −
theta_ni ) + . . .
+ vn_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ p i ) + vp_rms ∗ ip_rms
∗ ...
c o s ( theta_pv − t h e t a _ p i ) + vn_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv −
theta_ni ) ;
p b _ f u l l = v0_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( alpha_v0 − t h e t a _ p i − 4 ∗ p i / 3) +

...
v0_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( alpha_v0 − t h e t a _ n i − 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) + ...
vp_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_pv − t h e t a _ n i + 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) + ...
vn_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ p i − 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) + ...
vp_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_pv − t h e t a _ p i ) + . . .
vn_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ n i ) ;
p c _ f u l l = v0_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( alpha_v0 − t h e t a _ p i − 2 ∗ p i / 3) +

...
v0_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( alpha_v0 − t h e t a _ n i − 4 ∗ p i / 3 ) + ...
vp_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_pv − t h e t a _ n i − 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) + ...
vn_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ p i + 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) + ...
% Apply a c h e c k t o t h e Pa , Pb e x p r e s s i o n s a f t e r m a n i p u l a t i o n
%
pa_full_man = v0_rms ∗ ( ip_rms ∗ c o s ( t h e t a _ p i ) + . . .
in_rms ∗ c o s ( t h e t a _ n i ) ) ∗ c o s ( alpha_v0 ) + . . .
v0_rms ∗ ( ip_rms ∗ s i n ( t h e t a _ p i ) + . . .
in_rms ∗ s i n ( t h e t a _ n i ) ) ∗ s i n ( alpha_v0 ) + . . .
vp_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_pv − t h e t a _ n i ) + . . .
vn_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ p i ) + . . .
pb_full_man = v0_rms ∗ ( ip_rms ∗ c o s ( t h e t a _ p i + 4 ∗ p i / 3) + . . .

in_rms ∗ c o s ( t h e t a _ n i + 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) ) ∗ c o s ( alpha_v0 ) + ...
v0_rms ∗ ( ip_rms ∗ s i n ( t h e t a _ p i + 4 ∗ p i / 3 ) + . . .
in_rms ∗ s i n ( t h e t a _ n i + 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) ) ∗ s i n ( alpha_v0 ) + ...
vp_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_pv − t h e t a _ n i + 2 ∗ p i / 3) + . . .
vn_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ p i − 2 ∗ p i / 3) + . . .
% Now d e f i n e t h e complex power e x p r e s s i o n s f o r a wye c o n n e c t e d

system .
% with no n e u t r a l c o n n e c t i o n and no z e r o s e q u e n c e i n j e c t i o n .
%
Sa = va_comp_ph . ∗ c o n j ( i a ) ;
Sb = vb_comp_ph . ∗ c o n j ( i b ) ;
Sc = vc_comp_ph . ∗ c o n j ( i c ) ;
% Now c a l c u l a t e t h e v a l u e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e magnitude
% and a n g l e t o d r i v e t h e i n d i v i d u a l powers d i f f e r e n c e t o z e r o
between
% the i n d i v i d u a l phases .
%
% F i r s t l y c a l c u l a t e the constants involved .
%
% C o n s t a n t s f o r t h e e q u a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d with t h e Pa e q u a t i o n
%
k1 = ip_rms ∗ c o s ( t h e t a _ p i ) + in_rms ∗ c o s ( t h e t a _ n i ) ;
k2 = ip_rms ∗ s i n ( t h e t a _ p i ) + in_rms ∗ s i n ( t h e t a _ n i ) ;
k3 = vp_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_pv − t h e t a _ n i ) + . . .
vn_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ p i ) ;
% Now f o r t h e c o n s t a n t s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e Pb e q u a t i o n
%
k4 = ip_rms ∗ c o s ( t h e t a _ p i + 4 ∗ p i / 3 ) + . . .
in_rms ∗ c o s ( t h e t a _ n i + 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) ;
k5 = ip_rms ∗ s i n ( t h e t a _ p i + 4 ∗ p i / 3 ) + . . .
in_rms ∗ s i n ( t h e t a _ n i + 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) ;
k6 = vp_rms ∗ in_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_pv − t h e t a _ n i + 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) + . . .
vn_rms ∗ ip_rms ∗ c o s ( theta_nv − t h e t a _ p i − 2 ∗ p i / 3 ) ;
% Now c a l c u l a t e t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s e q u a t i o n
%
alpha_0 = atan2 ( ( k6 ∗ k1 − k3 ∗ k4 ) , ( k3 ∗ k5 − k6 ∗ k2 ) ) ;
% Now l o o k f o r t h e l e s s i l l −c o n d i t i o n e d e x p r e s s i o n t o c a l c u l a t e t h e
% magnitude o f t h e z e r o s e q u e n c e v o l t a g e
%
i f ( k4 ∗ c o s ( alpha_0 ) + k5 ∗ s i n ( alpha_0 ) ) > . . .
( k1 ∗ c o s ( alpha_0 ) + k2 ∗ s i n ( alpha_0 ) )
v0rms = −k6 / ( k4 ∗ c o s ( alpha_0 ) + k5 ∗ s i n ( alpha_0 ) ) ;
else
v0rms = −k3 / ( k1 ∗ c o s ( alpha_0 ) + k2 ∗ s i n ( alpha_0 ) ) ;
end
v0 = v0rms ∗ exp ( i ∗ alpha_0 ) ;
% As a c h e c k s e e i f these values s a t i s f y the o r i g i n a l equations

% These r e s i d u a l v a l u e s s h o u l d be z e r o ( o r v e r y c l o s e t o i t ) .
%
p a _ r e s i d = v0rms ∗ k1 ∗ c o s ( alpha_0 ) + v0rms ∗ k2 ∗ s i n ( alpha_0 ) +
k3 ;
p b _ r e s i d = v0rms ∗ k4 ∗ c o s ( alpha_0 ) + v0rms ∗ k5 ∗ s i n ( alpha_0 ) +
k6 ;
% Now r e c a l c u l a t e t h e phase power u s i n g t h e s e q u e n c e i n j e c t i o n

voltage .
% One n e e d s t o r e c o n s t i t u t e t h e phase v o l t a g e f i r s t l y and then
carry
% out t h e normal complex power c a l c u l a t i o n .
%
va_new = v0 + vap_ph + van_ph ;
vb_new = v0 + vap_ph ∗ a^2 + van_ph ∗ a ;
vc_new = v0 + vap_ph ∗ a + van_ph ∗ a ^ 2 ;
Sa_new = va_new . ∗ c o n j ( i a ) ;
Sb_new = vb_new . ∗ c o n j ( i b ) ;
Sc_new = vc_new . ∗ c o n j ( i c ) ;
% C a l c u l a t e t h e n e g a t i v e s e q u e n c e power f o r i n t e r e s t
%
Sa_neg = Vsym_ph ( 1 , 2 ) ∗ c o n j ( i a ) ;
Sb_neg = Vsym_ph ( 2 , 2 ) ∗ c o n j ( i b ) ;
Sc_neg = Vsym_ph ( 3 , 2 ) ∗ c o n j ( i c ) ;
Bibliography
[1] C. Yung, “Stopping a costly leak: The effects of unbalanced voltage on

the life and efficiency of three-phase electric motors.” US Department
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[2] C. Fortescue, “Method of symmetrical coordinates applied to the solution

of polyphase networks,” Trans. AIEE, vol. 37, pp. 1027–1140, 1918.
[3] “Single phasing and phase unbalance.” Internet: http://www.wisconsin-

publicservice.com/business/phase.asp, 2005.
[4] W. D. Stevenson, Elements of Power System Analysis. McGraw-Hill, 1975.

ISBN: 0-07-061285-4.
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nals for harmonics, reactive current and network-unbalance compensation,”
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134 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Introduction to Symmetrical Components and their use in STATCOM

Technical Report · March 2005

R.E. Betz T. J. Summers

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Multilevel Statcom Project View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Robert Betz and Terry Summers

ResTech Pty Ltd

The purpose of this document is to report on the use of symmetrical components

2 Theory of Power Factor Control and Phase Balancing 13

3.6.2.2 Unbalanced Source Voltage, Balanced Load . . . 66

A STATCOM Delta Connection Relationships 93

B Current and Voltage Measurement Instrumentation 103

C Software Listings 107

2.1 Development of unity power factor network. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.1 Delta connected controlled current sources for active symmetry

A.1 Delta connection current and voltage conventions. . . . . . . . . 94

B.1 The Karimi-Ghartemani Phase Locked Loop for estimation of

1.1 Effects of unbalance on temperature, losses, efficiency and life

1.1.1 Why is Balance Important in Power Systems?

To demonstrate the effects of unbalance on the lifetime of a three phase

%temperature increase = (%voltage unbalance)2 × 2 (1.2)

Therefore a 3% voltage unbalance will result in the winding temperature rising

% voltage Winding I2 R losses - Efficiency Expected

In addition to the loss of efficiency, voltage unbalance can also result in

Remark 1.5 Ascertaining the occurrence frequency of significant voltage unbal-

The remainder of this Chapter will concentrate developing some background

1.2 Symmetrical Component Basics

vap (t) = Vp cos(ω t) (1.4)

van (t) = Vn cos(ω t + θn ) (1.7)

va0 (t) = V0 cos(ω t + θ0 ) (1.10)

The time domain expressions can be expressed as traditional phasors as

~ ap = V̂p ∠0 = V̂p ej0

the negative sequence phasors:

~ an = V̂n ∠θn = V̂n ejθn

and finally the zero sequence phasors:

~ a0 = V̂0 ∠θ0 = V̂n ejθ0

~ a = V̂a ∠θa = V̂a ejθa

Let us define the following phasor operators:

Operations on the “a” vector are shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Operations on the “a” operator.

1.2.1 Power Under Asymmetric Operation

Substituting (1.59) and (1.60) into (1.52) allows us to write:

p = 3[(V̂p Iˆp cos φ1 + V̂n Iˆn cos φ2 )+

π 2V̂p Iˆp jωt π π

2V̂p Iˆn j(2ωt+φ2 )

1.3 Techniques for Extracting the Symmetrical

Theory of Power Factor

2.2 Symmetry Compensation Using Passive Cir-

Figure 2.1: Development of unity power factor network.

Remark 2.2 A crucial aspect of the balancing strategy is whether it can be

2.2.1 Open Circuit Phase Imbalance

−~Iab + ~Ia + ~Ica = 0 (2.1)

Figure 2.2: Balancing an open circuited phase.

In a similar fashion we can write that using KCL:

This completes the phasor diagram.

Figure 2.3: Balanced circuit when a phase is open circuited.

2.2.2 General Passive Imbalance Compensation

Gab ¹ Gbc ¹ Gca

Figure 2.4: Balancing of arbitrary load admittances

we can write, after some manipulation, (2.14) as:

From (2.32) one can write:

Substituting this into (2.31) and manipulating one gets: