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Chapter 2- 1
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BOHR ATOM
orbital electrons:
n = principal
quantum number 1
n=3 2 Adapted from Fig. 2.1,
Callister 6e.
Nucleus: Z = # protons
= 1 for hydrogen to 94 for plutonium
N = # neutrons
Atomic mass A ≈ Z + N
Chapter 2- 2
ELECTRON ENERGY STATES
Electrons...
• have discrete energy states
• tend to occupy lowest available energy state.
Increasing energy
4p
n=4 3d
4s
n=3 3p
3s
n=2 2p
2s
n=1 1s Adapted from Fig. 2.5,
Callister 6e.
Chapter 2- 3
STABLE ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS
Stable electron configurations...
• have complete s and p subshells
• tend to be unreactive.
Z Element Configuration
2 He 1s2 Adapted from Table 2.2,
10 Ne 2 2
1s 2s 2p6 Callister 6e.
18 Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6
36 Kr 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
Chapter 2-4
SURVEY OF ELEMENTS
• Most elements: Electron configuration not stable.
Element Atomic # Electron configuration
Hydrogen 1 1s1
Helium 2 1s2 (stable)
Lithium 3 1s22s1
Beryllium 4 1s22s2
Boron 5 1s22s22p1 Adapted from Table 2.2,
1s22s22p2 Callister 6e.
Carbon 6
... ...
Neon 10 1s22s22p6 (stable)
Sodium 11 1s22s22p63s1
Magnesium 12 1s22s22p63s2
Aluminum 13 1s22s22p63s23p1
... ...
Argon 18 1s22s22p63s23p6 (stable)
... ... ...
Krypton 36 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s246 (stable)
inert gases
give up 1e
give up 2e
accept 2e
accept 1e
give up 3e
Metal
Nonmetal
H He
Li Be Intermediate Ne
O F
Na Mg S Cl Ar Adapted
from Fig.
K Ca Sc Se Br Kr 2.6, Callister
6e.
Rb Sr Y Te I Xe
Cs Ba Po At Rn
Fr Ra
Na (metal) Cl (nonmetal)
unstable unstable
electron
Na (cation)
+ - Cl (anion)
stable Coulombic stable
Attraction
Chapter 2- 8
EXAMPLES: IONIC BONDING
• Predominant bonding in Ceramics
NaCl
MgO
H He
2.1 CaF 2 -
Li Be O F Ne
1.0 1.5 CsCl 3.5 4.0 -
Na Mg Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr I Xe
0.8 1.0 2.5 -
Cs Ba At Rn
0.7 0.9 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Chapter 2-10
EXAMPLES: COVALENT BONDING
H2O
column IVA
H2 F2
C(diamond)
H He
2.1
SiC - Cl2
Li Be C O F Ne
1.0 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.0 -
Na Mg Si Cl Ar
0.9 1.2 1.8 3.0 -
K Ca Ti Cr Fe Ni Zn Ga Ge As Br Kr
0.8 1.0 1.5 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.8 -
Rb Sr Sn I Xe
0.8 1.0 1.8 2.5 -
Cs Ba Pb At Rn
0.7 0.9 1.8 2.2 -
Fr Ra
0.7 0.9
Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 isGaAs
adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition,
Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.
+ + +
+ + +
+ - secondary + - H H H H
secondary
bonding Adapted from Fig. 2.13, Callister 6e. bonding
seco n
-ex: polymer da r y
bo nd
in g
Chapter 2-13
SUMMARY: BONDING
Type Bond Energy Comments
Ionic Large! Nondirectional (ceramics)
Variable Directional
Covalent large-Diamond semiconductors, ceramics
small-Bismuth polymer chains)
Variable
Metallic large-Tungsten Nondirectional (metals)
small-Mercury
Directional
Secondary smallest inter-chain (polymer)
inter-molecular
Chapter 2-14
PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: TM
• Bond length, r • Melting Temperature, Tm
F
F Energy (r)
r
• Bond energy, Eo ro
r
Energy (r)
smaller Tm
unstretched length
ro larger Tm
r
E o= Tm is larger if Eo is larger.
“bond energy”
Chapter 2-15
PROPERTIES FROM BONDING: E
• Elastic modulus, Ecross
sectional
length, L o
area Ao
Elastic modulus
undeformed F L
L =E
Ao Lo
deformed F
• E ~ curvature at ro
Energy
unstretched length
ro E is larger if Eo is larger.
r
smaller Elastic Modulus
• ~ symmetry at ro
Energy
ro
r is larger if Eo is smaller.
larger
smaller
Chapter 2-17
SUMMARY: PRIMARY BONDS
Ceramics Large bond energy
(Ionic & covalent bonding): large Tm
large E
small
Chapter 2-18