Spur Gears

Introduction
Gears are toothed members which transmit power /
motion between two shafts by meshing without any
slip. Hence, gear drives are also called positive
drives.
In any pair of gears, the smaller one is called pinion
and the larger one is called gear immaterial of which
is driving the other.

When pinion is the driver, it results in step down

drive in which the output speed decreases and the
torque increases. On the other hand, when the gear is
the driver, it results in step up drive in which the
output speed increases and the torque decreases.
 Terminology of spur gear
1. pinion: A pinion is smaller of two meshing gears
2. Gear: A gear is larger of two meshing gear
3. Velocity ratio(i) =(angular vel. of driving gear/ang. Vel. Of driven gear)
4. Transmission ratio = in gear trains
5. Pitch surface: are the imaginary planes (cylinders or cones) that roll together
without slipping.
6. Pitch circle: is the curve of intersection of pitch surface of revolution and
plane of rotation. It is the imaginary circle that rolls without slipping with the
pitch circle of a mating gear. The pitch circle of mating gears are tangent to
each other
7. PCD (d’)
8. Pitch point
9. Top land: surface of top of gear tooth
10. Bottom land
11. Involute: curve traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without slipping
on a circle
 Terminology of spur gear
12. Base circle: is the imaginary circle from which the involute curve of tooth
profile is generated
13. Addendum circle: is the imaginary circle that borders the top of gear teeth
14. Dedendum circle: is the imaginary circle that borders the bottom spaces
between the teeth (root circle)
15. Addendum (ha): radial distance between pitch and addendum circle
16. Dedendum(hf): radial distance between pitch and dedendum circle
17. Clearance: difference between dedendum of the given gear and addendum of
the mating gear
18. face: is the surface of gear tooth between pitch circle and addendum circle
19. Flank
20. Whole depth
21. Working depth
22. Face width: width of tooth measured parallel to axis.
23. Fillet radius: The radius that connects the root circle to the profile of tooth.
24. Pressure angle(α): The angle which line of action makes with the common
tangent to pitch circles. It is also called angle of obliquity.
 Terminology of spur gear

25. Line of action: is the common tangent to the base circles of mating gears. The
contact between involute surfaces of mating teeth should be on this line to
give a smooth operation
26. Arc. Of contact : is the arc of pitch circle through which a tooth moves
frmom beginning to end of contact with mating tooth.
27. Arc of approach: arc the tooth moves on pitch circle from beginning of
contact until point of contact arrives to pitch point
28. Arc of recess
29. Contact ratio (mp): The number of pairs of teeth that are simultaneously
engaged is called contact ration. Usually 1.2 for smooth transfer of motion.
also 1.6 to 1.7 (in industrial gearbox for heavy duty applications)
30 circular pitch (p) = (Π*d’)/z z – number of teeth
31 diametral pitch(P)= ratio of number of teeth(z) to the pitch circle
diameter(d’) P = z/d’

Pp = Π
 Terminology of spur gear
Module: is defined as inverse of diametral pitch

m = 1/P = d’/z
 d’ = mz

Center to center distance b/w two gears having teeth zp and zg is given by
a = ½(d’p + d’z) =m(zp+zg)/2

Gear ratio i = np/ng = zg/zp

here n = rpm
LAW OF GEARING
The common normal to tooth profile
at the point of contact should
always pass through a fixed point
called the pitch point in order to
obtain the constant velocity ratio
Gear Terminology- Spur Gear
 Interference and undercutting

A gear tooth has involute profile only outside the base circle

When engaged, the tip of tooth on mating gear which is involute, interferes with
the non-involute portion of the dedendum. This phenomenon of tooth profiles
overlapping and cutting into each other is called interference.

Consequence: Tooth overlaps and dig into base of other gear.

Excessive Wear , jamming and vibrations.

When gears are manufactured by involute rack cutters this interference is

automatically eliminated because cutting tool removes the interfering portion
of flank, hence undercutting solves the problems of interference.

Disadvantage-> strength reduction

 Backlash

Backlash is defined as the amount by which width of tooth space exceeds the
thickness of engaging teeth measured along the pitch circle.
• Prevents teeth from jamming together.
• Compensates for machining errors.
• Compensates for thermal expansion of teeth.
  Crowning of gear tooth

One of the method of strengthening the gear is crowning

There will be an uneven distribution of pressure along face width due to:
1. Inaccuracies in tooth profile (Manf. Error)
2. Errors in assembly
3. Elastic deflection of shaft
All these factors result in shifting of pressure the to the end of teeth.
In the crowning process the ends of tooth are made slightly thinner by amount c
using shaving cutter.
c= 0.0003b to 0.0005b
 Gear tooth force
Power is transmitted by means of a
force exerted by the tooth of the
driving gear on the meshing tooth
of driven gear.
Pressure line or Line of
action: is the common
tangent to the base circles
of mating gears. The
contact between involute
surfaces of mating teeth
should be on this line to
give a smooth operation
Pressure angle(α): The
angle which line of action
makes with the common
tangent to pitch circles. It
is also called angle of
obliquity.
Force analysis
PN will act along pressure line
Mt Torque transmitted (N-mm)
kW power transmitted by gears
N speed of rotation (rpm)
Force analysis- Assumptions
The force analysis is based on following
assumptions:
1 As the point of contact moves, the magnitude
of force PN changes. This effect is neglected
in the anlysis
2. It is assumed that only one pair of teeth takes
the entire load at a time.
3. The analysis is valid under static conditions
 Free body diagram of forces

In above free body diagram pinion is driving element, Gear is driven element
* Pinion is the driving element, Gear is driven element
 Gear Tooth Failure

1. Abrasive wear- Due to foreign particles in lubricants dirt, rust,

weld spatter etc.
Remedy – oil filter, high viscosity oils
2. Corrosive wear – Rust formation
Remedy- sealed enclosure
3. Pitting – formation of local cavities over the surface – Due to
error in tooth profile, surface irregularities and misalignment.
Remedy- Precise Machining, correct alignment
4. Scoring – Stick-slip phenomenon – Due to excessive surface
pressure and high surface speed.
Remedy- Exact speed of rotation, maintaining flow of lubricant
 Number of Teeth

While designing: Deciding number of teeth on pinion and gear is a key step.

1. There is a limiting value

2. As number of teeth decreases, a point is reached when there will be
interference.

Therefore minimum number of teeth to avoid interference is given by:

Zmin = 2/sin2α

Table: Number of teeth per standard system of gear teeth

Beam strength of Gear Teeth- Lewis equation

Analysis presented by Wilfred Lewis in

1892 is considered as the basic equation

Gear Tooth is treated as cantilever beam

Assumptions in Lewis equation:
1. The effect of radial component (Pr)
which induces compressive stresses is
neglected.
2. It is assumed that the tangential force (pt)
component is uniformly distributed over
the width of teeth
3. The effect of stress concentration is
neglected.
4. It is assumed that at one point of time
only one pair of teeth is in contact.
Beam strength of Gear Teeth- Lewis equation
• Parabolic outlining is done to make it a
beam of uniform strength
• The weakest section of gear tooth is
section x-x
Bending moment at section X-X
 Beam strength of Gear Teeth- Lewis equation

When the stress reaches the permissible magnitude of bending stresses, the
corresponding force (Pt) is called beam strength.
Sb = mbσbY
Y- Lewis form factor
The beam strength (Sb) is the maximum value of tangential force that tooth can
transmit without bending failure.
 Face width (b)

In designing gears, it is required to express the face width in

terms of module (m).

In practice, the optimum range of face width is

8m < b < 12m

Generally, face width is assumed as ten times module

Stress–time diagram in gear teeth
σm - Mean Stress
σmax - Maximum stress
σa - Stress amplitude
For driving and driven gears:

For idler gear:

Chapter 17

Since the teeth are subjected to fluctuating stresses, endurance

limit stress is the criterion of design.

Endurance limit depends upon:

1.Surface finish of the gear tooth
2.Size of the gear tooth
3.Reliability used in design
4.Stress concentration in the gear tooth
5.Gear rotating in one direction or both direction.
6.Gear tooth subjected to stress in one direction or both direction.
Suggested endurance limit
Se = (1/3)Sut
 Effective load on gear teeth
The value of tangential component of force depends upon the rated power and
rated speed:
Pt = 2Mt /d’
In practical applications the torque developed by source varies during the working
cycle. In gear design the maximum force (due to max. torque) is the criterion.

The fluctuations are accounted by means of service factor (Cs)

Where, (Ft) is the tangential force due to rated torque (Mt)

 Effective load on gear tooth (cont…)

At higher speeds it is necessary to consider the dynamic force resulting from

impact between the mating teeth:

The dynamic force is induced due to:

1. Inaccuracies of tooth profile .

2. errors in tooth spacing.
3. Misalignment between bearings.
4. elasticity of parts.

The two methods to account for dynamic load are:

1. Approximate estimation by velocity factor in the preliminary stages of design.
2. Precise calculation by Buckingham equation in final stages of design.
 Effective load on gear tooth (cont…)
Approximate estimation: The values of velocity factor Cv (Developed by Barth) are as follows:
1. For ordinary and commercially cut gears made from cutters and with v < 10 m/s

2. For accurately hobbed and generated gears with v < 20 m/s

3. For precision gears with shaving, grinding and lapping operations with v >20 m/s

The effective load between 2 meshing teeth is given by:

Peff = Cs Pt / Cv

The disadvantages of velocity factor is that although it gives good rough estimates but
ignores the role of a number of other factors (Gear Mass, Material properties etc.)
 Effective load on gear tooth (cont…)
2. Precise calculation In the final stages of gear design when dimensions are accurately
known, errors are specified. The dynamic load is calculated by Buckingham eqn:
Peff = (CsPt + Pd)

Pd is the dynamic load or incremental dynamic load given by:

Pd = 21 v (Ceb + Pt )

v – Pitch line velocity (m/s)

C – deformation factor (N/mm2) Table 17.7
e – sum of errors between 2 meshing teeth (N/mm 2) Table 17.8
b – face width of tooth (mm)
Pt – tangential force due to rated torque (N)
C = _______K________
(1/Ep + 1/Eg)
Ep, Eg – Young Modulii
K – constant (k=0.107 for 14.5o full depth, k=0.111 for 20o full depth, k=0.115 for 20o stub)
 Estimation of Module (m) based on beam strength
In order to avoid failure of gear tooth due to bending.
Sb> Peff
Introducing a factor of safety (Fs)
Sb = Peff Fs
Recommended value of Fs from 1.5 to 2

Tangential component of force is given by(Pt ):

Effective load (Peff )between two meshing teeth (using velocity factor):

Beam strength Sb = mbσbY

 Wear strength of gear tooth

The failure of the gear tooth due to pitting occurs when contacting stresses
between the two meshing teeth exceed the ‘Surface endurance strength’ of
material
Wear strength of gear tooth (cont..)

Contact stresses
 Wear strength of gear tooth (cont..)
The wear strength analysis done by Earle Buckingham gives an equation of
the form (known as Buckingham equation)
σc = 2P/πbl . . . . . . (a)

. . . . . (b)
Here:
σc – Max. value of compressive stress (N/mm2)
P = force pressing the two cylinders (surfaces) together(N)
b = half width of deformation(mm)
l= axial length of cylinder (mm)
d1,d2 – diameters of two cylinders (mm)
E1, E2 – Elastic Modulii of cylinder materials (N/mm2)
μ - Poisson’s ratio
Chapter 17
Chapter 17
Wear strength of gear tooth (cont..)
The equation of contact stress is based on following
assumptions:
1. The cylinders are made of isotropic materials
2. The elastic limit of materials is not exceeded
3. r1, r2 are very large as compared to width (2b) of
deformation.
In the actual analysis of teeth (Not cylinder this time)

Radii r1, r2 are to be replaced by radii of curvature at

pitch point

Blank slide
Chapter 17
Chapter 17
Chapter 17
 Estimation of Module (m) based on wear strength
In order to avoid failure of gear tooth due to bending.
Sw> Peff
Introducing a factor of safety (Fs)
Sw = Peff Fs
Recommended value of Fs from 1.5 to 2

Tangential component of force is given by(Pt ):

Effective load (Peff )between two meshing teeth (using velocity factor):

Wear strength Sw = bQd’pK

Chapter 17
Fig. 17.14  Conventional Representation
Fig. 17.15  Simple gear trains
Fig. 17.16  Compound Gear Train
Fig. 17.17  Reverted gear train
Fig. 17.18  Epicyclic gear train
Chapter 17

It is required to design a spur gear for a speed

reduction of 4. The driven gear is at 250 rpm by a
motor of 7.5 kw. The center distance should be 250
mm. The gears are made up of same material with
Sut=700MPa and pressure angle of 20. Design the
gear and Determine hardness. Design it for dynamic
load condition.
Fig. 17.23  
Chapter 17

Gear A receives 3.5 kW at 700 rpm in the

clockwise direction. Gear B is idler gear. The
number of teeth on A,B,C are 30,60,40 and
module is 5mm.
Determine torque on shaft of each gear and
reactions on shafts
Fig. 17.24  Free body diagram of forces
Fig. 17.25  Planetary gear train
Fig. 17.26  
Fig. 17.27  
Fig. 17.28  Free body diagram of forces
Fig. 17.29  
Fig. 17.30  
Fig. 17.31  
Fig. 17.32   Integral gear
Fig. 17.33  Machined gear
Fig. 17.34  Forged gear
Fig. 17.35  Cast iron web type gear
Fig. 17.36  Rimmed gears
Fig. 17.37
Fig. 17.38
Fig. 17.44
Fig. 17.45  Internal gear
Fig. 17.46
Fig. 17.47
Fig. 17.48
Fig. 17.49
Fig. 17.1  Spur Gears
Fig. 17.2  Helical gears
Fig. 17.3  Herringbone gear
Fig. 17.4  Bevel gears
Fig. 17.5  Warm gears
 Standard system of gear tooth

Basic racks of standard Gear system

All standard systems prescribe the profile for gear tooth. As the number of teeth
are increased the profile become straight and hence it is easy to standardize it.
Fig. 17.11  Standard tooth profiles