Chapter 1: FLOW IN SOIL

1.1 Capillary in soil, soil shrinkage and soil

expansion
1.2 Head and flow of one and two dimensional
1.3 Seepage analyses; flow net, seepage force,
quick sand and liquefaction
 The amount of water in the soil is dependent upon two factors:
i. First, soil water is intimately related to the climate, or the long term precipitation patterns, of an
area.
ii. Secondly, the amount of water in the soil depends upon how much water a soil may hold.

 Before we discuss the capacity of soils to hold water, we must understand the concept
of capillarity.
 Capillarity
Water molecules behave in two ways:
a) Cohesion Force: Because of cohesion forces, water molecules are attracted to one another.
Cohesion causes water molecules to stick to one another and form water droplets.
b) Adhesion Force: This force is responsible for the attraction between water and solid surfaces. For
example, a drop of water can stick to a glass surface as the result of adhesion.
Water also exhibits a property of surface tension:
c) Water surfaces behave in an unusual way because of cohesion. Since water molecules are more
attracted to other water molecules as opposed to air particles, water surfaces behave like
expandable films. This phenomenon is what makes it possible for certain insects to walk along
water surfaces.
 Capillary Action:
 Capillary action, also referred to as capillary motion or
capillarity, is a combination of cohesion/adhesion and
surface tension forces.
 Capillary action is demonstrated by the upward movement
of water through a narrow tube against the force of gravity.
 Capillary action occurs when the adhesive intermolecular
forces between a liquid, such as water, and the solid surface
of the tube are stronger than the cohesive intermolecular
forces between water molecules.
 As the result of capillarity, a concave meniscus (or curved,
U-shaped surface) forms where the liquid is in contact with
a vertical surface.
 Capillary rise is the height to which the water rises within
the tube, and decreases as the width of the tube increases.
Thus, the narrower the tube, the water will rise to a greater
height.
Capillarity (capillary motion):
 The phenomenon of capillarity also
occurs in the soil. In the same way that
water moves upwards through a tube
against the force of gravity; water moves
upwards through soil pores, or the spaces
between soil particles.
 Capillarity is the primary force that
enables the soil to retain water, as well as
to regulate its movement.
 The height to which the water rises is
dependent upon pore size. As a result, the
smaller the soil pores, the higher the
capillary rise.
 Capillarity (capillary motion):
 Finely-textured soils, typically have smaller pores
than coarsely-textured soils. Therefore, finely-
textured soils have a greater ability to hold and
retain water in the soil in the inter-particle spaces.
We refer to the pores between small clay particles
as micropores. In contrast, the larger pore spacing
between lager particles, such as sand, are called
macropores.
 In addition to water retention, capillarity in soil also
enables the upward and horizontal movement of
water within the soil profile, as opposed to
downward movement caused by gravity. This
upward and horizontal movement occurs when
lower soil layers have more moisture than the upper
soil layers and is important because it may be
absorbed by roots.
 Soil shrinkage & soil swelling
 Soil undergo a volume change when the water content is
changed.
 Decrease in water content cause shrinkage.
 Increase of water content cause swelling.

SHRINKAGE OF SOILS
 When saturated soils is allowed to dry, a meniscus develops in

each void at the soil surface.

 Formation of such a meniscus causes tension in the soil water

leading to a compression in the soil structure and consequent

reduction in the volume.
 When the meniscus attains its minimum value, compressive

forces are maximum and shrinkage is also maximum.

 Soil shrinkage & soil swelling

SWELLING OF SOILS
 When water is added to a soil which

has shrunk, meniscus are destroyed

resulting in tension in the pore water
and consequent reduction in
compressive stresses in solid grains.
 This result in elastic expansion of the

soil mass, causing swelling.

 In clay soils, swelling is caused mainly

due to repulsive forces which separate

the clay particles, causing volume
change.
One and two-dimensional flow of water
through soils
• The flow of water through soils is
governed by Darcy’s law, which states
that the average flow velocity is
proportional to the hydraulic
gradient.
• One- dimensional flow – the velocity
at all points has the same direction
and (for an incompressible fluid) the
same magnitude
• Two-dimensional flow – all
streamlines in the flow are plane
curves and are identical in a series of
parallel planes
• One- dimensional flow
Bernoulli’s principle

The flow is assumed to be steady, inviscid (no

change in viscosity), incompressible (no change
in volume), and irrotational (fluid particles do not
spin).
The elevation or potential head is referenced to
an arbitrary datum, and the total head will change
depending on the choice of the datum position.
Therefore, it is essential that you identify your
datum position in solutions to flow problems.
The velocity of flow through soils is generally
small (<1 cm/s)and we usually neglect the
velocity head. The total head in soils is then
• One- dimensional flow
Darcy’s law
• Two- dimensional flow
Seepage
analysis
• Many catastrophic failures in geotechnical engineering result from
instability of soil masses due to ground water flow
• Lives are lost, infrastructures are damaged or destroyed, and major
economic losses occurred
• Two- dimensional flow
Seepage
analysis
• In this subchapter, you will study the basic principles
of two-dimensional flow of water through soils
• The topics that you will study would help you to avoid
pitfalls in the analyses and design of geotechnical
systems where flow of ground water can lead to
instability
• The emphasis of this chapter is on gaining an
understanding of the forces that provoke failures from
flow of ground water
• Two- dimensional flow
Seepage
analysis
Learning Objectives:

Understand the basic principles of two-dimensional flow

Be able to calculate seepage stresses, pore-water pressure
distribution, uplift forces, hydraulic gradients, critical
hydraulic gradient, flow under and within earth structures
Be able to determine the stability of geotechnical systems
subjected to two-dimensional flow of water
• Two- dimensional flow
Seepage
Basic concepts:
analysis
• The two-dimensional flow of water through soils is governed by
Laplace’s equation. The popular form of Laplace’s equation for two-
dimensional flow of water through soils is
2H 2H
kx  kz 0
x 2
z 2

• Where kx and kz are the coefficient of permeability in the x and z

directions and H is the head
• The assumptions in Laplace’s equation are:
(i) Darcy’s law is valid, v = ki
(ii) The soil is homogeneous and saturated
(iii) The soil and water are incompressible
(iv) No volume change occurs
• Two- dimensional flow Seepage
Basic concepts:
analysis
• If the soil were an isotropic material then kx = kz and Laplace’s equation
becomes:
2H 2H
 2 0
x 2
z
• The solution of Laplace’s equation requires knowledge of the boundary
conditions.
• Common geotechnical problems have complex boundary conditions from
which it is difficult to obtain a closed form solution.
• Approximate methods such as graphical methods and numerical methods are
often employed.
• In this subchapter, graphical method, called the flow net technique or flow
net sketching, that satisfies Laplace’s equation is discussed.
• Two- dimensional flow
Seepage analysis- flownet
sketching
Seepage analysis- flownet
sketching
Seepage analysis- flownet
sketching
Seepage analysis- flownet
sketching
Seepage analysis- flownet
sketching
No of equipotential
drops at point a

Elevation loss
 Static Liquefaction, Heaving, Boiling &
Piping
• Static liquefaction – the state which the effective stress
becomes zero, the soil loses its strength and behaves like a
viscous fluid.
• Liquefaction – can be produced by dynamic events such as
earthquakes
• Boiling, quicksand, piping and heaving are used to describe
specific events connected to the static liquefaction state
a. Quicksand – existence of a mass of sand in a state of static
liquefaction
b. Boiling – the upward seepage force exceeds the downward
force of the soil
c. Piping – the subsurface “pipe-shaped” erosion that initiates
near the toe of dams and similar structures. High localized
hydraulic gradient statically liquefies the soil, which progresses
to the water surface in the form of a pipe, and water then
rushes beneath the structure through the pipe, leading to
instability and failure
d. Heaving occurs when seepage forces push the bottom of an
excavation upward.
END OF CHAPTER 1
 Assignments

Additional requirements;

8.2 Determined; a) q , b) imax , c) porewater force at

front and back of sheet pile. Set the ground surface
as datum. Additional notes;
• Use graph paper.
• Flow channel = 4
8.3 Ditto. Set the impermeable layer as datum. • Equipotential
lines= 8.
Additional notes;
• Use graph paper.
• Flow channel = 4
• Equipotential
lines= 12
• Assume Gs = 2.7.