Electric Power Quality

Hafiz Mudassir Munir

BSc Engg. (Pak),MSc Engg. (UK),PhD (China)
 Power Quality in Microgrids
Microgrids are deemed as one of the main building blocks of the smart grids; since, are able to
facilitate implementation of many smart grid functions. It is expected that in a near future,
smart grid emerges as a well-planned plug-and-play integration of microgrids which interact
through dedicated highways for exchanging commands, data, and power. Providing a high
power quality for the customers is one of the main objectives in smart grids. On the other
hand, the proliferation of different nonlinear and single-phase loads in electrical systems has
resulted in voltage harmonic and unbalance as two common power quality problems. In
addition, harmonic resonances can be excited giving rise to significant increase of the voltage
distortion. These phenomena can cause variety of problems such as protective relays
malfunction, overheating of motors and transformers and failure of power factor correction
capacitors. In this course, compensation and damping of such power quality problems will be
addressed through several control approaches. The course is mainly focused on three-phase
voltage source inverters, however, single-phase circuits will be also considered. The modelling
and control of these power electronic converters will be discussed and hierarchical and
decentralized control approaches will be presented in order to enhance the voltage quality.
Several simulation exercises will be included.
Electric Power Quality – Course Outlines
Course Outlines:
• Part An introduction: Power Quality
• Sources of Sags and Transient Over-voltages
• Distribution System Analysis and Protection
• Protection Devices
• Harmonic Distortion
• Principles for Controlling Harmonics
• Devices For Filtering Harmonics,
• Time and Frequency Domain Methods of Analysis, Fourier, Walsh, and Hartley Transforms
• Monitoring Power Quality
• Power Quality Improvement
• Long Duration Voltage Variations
• Wiring And Grounding
Course Outline…..Continued
• State of the art Microgrid
• Overview of Microgrid (DC + AC)
• DC Microgrids: Control Strategies and Stabilization Techniques
• Power Quality in AC Microgrids
• Power Quality Grid Codes
• Harmonic Compensation and Reactive Power Sharing in Droop Controlled Microgrids
• Virtual Impedance for Load Sharing and Power Quality improvement
• Hierarchical Control for Compensation of Voltage Unbalance and Harmonics in Microgrids
• Grid Simulator for Power Quality Assessment of Microgrids
• Smart Metering System for Microgrid Power Quality Evaluation
Textbooks: Electrical Power Systems Quality, McGraw Hill 2002, Dugan,
McGranaghan, Santoso, Beaty
Power Quality Problems and Mitigation Techniques, John Wiley & Sons
Ltd,2015, Bhim Singh, Ambrish Chandra,Kamal Al-Haddad

Different Research Directions

LFC-Load frequency control AC Microgrid
DVR-Dynamic voltage restoration DC Microgrid
Slide mode control Inverters Modelling, Control and Stability
Model predictive control Harmonic Filtering and resonance damping
Reactive power filtering compensation
Pure PV, DC microgrid
Ancillary services
I, V, f
MPPT
Solar PV, wind turbine,
Battery management system
Harmonic control
 Introduction
• Day-by-day electric power systems are becoming more and more
complex.
• The dependence of power system on distributed energy sources,
including renewable and non-conventional, has made the control of
the system sufficiently complicated.
• With the use of modern power electronic devices, now-a-days, the
complexities in system are made more efficient, user-friendly and
reliable also.
• Since the use of sophisticated electronic gadgets has increased in
every sphere of life, for their good longevity, requirement of quality
 Why Poor Power Quality is not acceptable?
■ Metering: Poor power quality can affect the accuracy
of utility
metering.
■ Protective relays: Poor power quality can cause
protective relays
to malfunction.
■ Downtime: Poor power quality can result in equipment
downtime
and/or damage, resulting in a loss of productivity.
■ Cost: Poor power quality can result in increased costs
due to the preceding
effects.
■ Electromagnetic compatibility: Poor power quality
Electric Power Quality

• Electric Power Quality is a term that refers to maintaining

the near sinusoidal waveform of power distribution bus
voltages and currents at rated magnitude and frequency.

• Electric Power Quality describes the variation of voltage,

current and frequency in a power system.

• The sophistication of electrical appliances with the

development of electronics has added to the demand of
quality power at the consumer premises.
• To ensure uninterrupted and quality power has thus
become a point of competition for the power producers.
Figure Ideal single-phase voltage waveform
Figure An ideal three-phase voltage waveform at 60 Hz with a line-line-voltage of
480 V rms. Shown are the line-neutral voltages of each phase
Problem of Poor Power Quality  
• Power quality refers to maintaining a sinusoidal waveform of  bus
voltages at rated voltage and frequency.  
• The waveform of electric power at generation stage is purely
 sinusoidal and free from any distortion.  
• Many devices that distort the waveform.  
• These distortions may propagate all over the electrical network  
 Electric Power Quality

Study on electric power quality may be divided into

following stages
1. Fundamental concepts
2. Sources
3. Effects
4. Modeling and Analysis
5. Instrumentation
6. Solutions
‘Fundamental concept’
• identifies the parameters and their degree of variation with respect
to their rated magnitude which are the base reason for degradation of quality of
electric Power

‘Sources’
• are the regions or locations or events which causes the unwanted
variation of those parameters. It’s really a big challenge to the power engineers
to find out the exact sources of power quality related disturbance in the ever
increasing complex network.

‘Effects’
of poor quality of power are the effects faced by the system
and consumer equipment after the occurrence of different disturbances.
“Modeling and analysis”

• attempts are taken to configure the disturbance, its occurrence, sources

and effect; mainly based on the mathematical background.

‘instrumentation’
• For monitoring of electric power quality, constant measurement and
‘instrumentation’ of the electric parameters are necessary.

“Solution”
• Delivery of pure power to the consumer side is practically impossible.

Our target is to minimize the probability of occurrence of disturbances and to

reduce the effects of electric power quality problems
Modern Utility System  
l. Deregulation of electricity market  
2. Customer demand  
3. Distributed generations  
• Wind Energy  
• Solar Energy  
• Co-generation plants
Modern Power System
What is a regulated electricity market?
A “regulated electricity market” contains utilities that own and operate all
electricity.  From the generation to the meter, the utility has complete control. 
The utility company owns the infrastructure and transmission lines then sells it
directly to the customers.  In regulated states, utilities must abide by electricity
rates set by state public utility commissions.  This type of market is often
considered as a monopoly due to its limitations on consumer choice.  However,
its benefits include stable prices and long-term certainty.

What is a deregulated electricity market?

A “deregulated electricity market” allows for the entrance of competitors to buy
and sell electricity by permitting market participants to invest in power plants
and transmission lines.  Generation owners then sell this wholesale electricity
to retail suppliers.  
It often benefits consumers by allowing them to compare rates and services of
different third party supply companies (ESCOs) and provides different contract
structures (e.g. fixed, indexed, hybrid).  Also, in a green pricing programs.
regulated market, there is an increased availability of renewable sources.
Blockchain:
With the rapid growth of renewable energy resources, the energy trading began
to shift from centralized to distributed manner. Blockchain, as a distributed
public ledger technology, has been widely adopted to design new energy trading
schemes. However, there are many challenging issues for blockchain‐based
energy trading, i.e., low efficiency, high transaction cost, security & privacy issues.
In traditional energy market, the energy users can only buy electricity from the
power utilities. In Smart grid, the energy users play a role in both power
consumer and supplier. The excessive renewable energy generations can be
traded with the utility and other users in deficit of power supplies for mutual
benefits.
Fig Power Quality Definition 
 Resistive Elements Inductive Elements Capacitive Elements  

Incandescent lighting Induction motors Power factor correction

 capacitor
Electric heater current limiting reactors Underground cables
Induction generators (wind Insulated cables  
mills)
Damping reactors used to Capacitors used in
attenuate harmonics harmonic   harmonics filler
 
Tuning reactors in
harmonic filters  

Examples of other linear loads, such as electrical motors driving fans, water pumps,
oil pumps,  cranes, elevators. etc. not supplied through power conversion devices
like variable   frequency drives or any other form or rectification/inversion of current
will incorporate  magnetic core losses that depend on iron and copper physical
characteristics.  
 Source of Power Quality Problem  
 Classification of power quality areas may be made
 according to the source of the problem such as.  
• Converters
• Magnetic circuit non-linearity  
• Arc furnace or by the wave shape of the signal
such as harmonics.  
• Flicker or by the frequency spectrum (radio
frequency interference).  
Examples of Power Quality Problems

Figure: voltage sag due to disturbance

Source of Power Quality Problem -2  
• The wave shape phenomena associated with power  quality may he
characterized into synchronous and non-synchronous phenomena.  
• Synchronous phenomena refer to those in synchronism with A.C
waveform at power frequency.  
 CAUSES OF POWER QUALITY  DETERIORATION  
I. Natural causes:  
• Faults or lighting strikes on transmission lines or distribution
feeders  
• Falling of trees or branches on distribution  feeders during stormy
conditions, equipment  failure etc.  
2. Due to load or transmission line/  
feeder operation:  
• Transformer energization  
• Capacitor" or feeder switching  
• Power electronic loads (UPS, AS D, converters etc.)
• Arc furnaces and induction heating systems  
• Switching on or off of large loads etc.  
Increased concern about the quality of electric  power is
the continued push for increasing  productivity for all utility
customers.  

Utility customers - always want to  increase productivity  

Manufacturers - want faster, more  productive. more

efficient machinery  

Utilities - encourage this effort because it  helps their

customers become more  profitable  
 
POWER  QUALITY DEFINITION  
Whole of power engineering, in one way or other is related  
to power quality.  
• There is no universal agreement for the  definition of power quality.  
• A Utility may define power quality as  reliability and show statistics
demonstrating  that its system is 99.98 percent reliable.
A manufacturer of load equipment may define  power quality as those
characteristics of the  power supply that enable the equipment to work  properly.
These characteristics can be very  different for different criteria.
• Power quality is ultimately a consumer-driven  issue, we define power quality
as,  
• Any power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that
result in  failure or maloperation of customer equipment  
 
Voltage Quality  
• The power supply system can only control the quality  
of the voltage: it has no control over the currents that  
particular loads might draw.  
• Therefore, the standards in the power quality area are  
devoted to maintaining the supply voltage within  
certain limits.  
 
Voltage Quality  
Generators may provide a near perfect sine wave  voltage,
the current passing through the impedance to  the system
can cause a variety of disturbances to the  voltage.
For example,

l. Current resulting from a short circuit causes the

 voltage to sag disappear completely.  
2. Currents from lightning strokes passing
through the  power system causes high-impulse
voltages that  frequently flash over insulation
and lead to other  phenomena such as short
circuits.  
3. Distorted currents from harmonic producing
loads also  distort the voltage as they pass
through the system  impedance. Thus, a
distorted voltage is presented to other  end
users.  
 
SOURCES OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS  
I. Load equipment and components  
Converters. Pulse modulated loads. Machine drives. Arc  
furnaces, Computers. UPS. Television sets Fluorescent  
and other gas discharge lighting Certain components  
which employ magnetic circuits  
2. Subsystems of the transmission and distribution  
system  
Grounding systems, resonant systems  
For steady state phenomenon, the following
attributes can be used:  
• Amplitude  
• Frequency  
• Spectrum  
• modulation  
• Source impedance  
• Notch depth  
• Notch area  
 
For non-steady-state phenomena, other
attributes  may be required:  
• Rate of rise  
• Amplitude  
• Duration  
• Spectrum  
• Frequency  
• Rate of occurrence  
• Energy potential  
• Source impedance  
Transients:
Transients may generate
in the system itself or may
come
from the other system.
Transients are classified
into two categories:
dc transient and ac
transient.
AC transients are further
divided into two
categories: single cycle
and multiple
Bollen, cycles.
M.H.J., Styvaktakis, E., Yu-HuaGu, I.: Categorization and analysis of power system
transients. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 20(3), 2298–2306 (2005)
 Transients can be classified into two
categories,  
l. Impulsive  
2. Oscillatory  
 
Impulsive transient  
• It is a sudden, non—power frequency change in the
steady- state condition of voltage, current, or both.  
• It is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either positive  
or negative).  
• Impulsive transients are normally characterized by  
their rise and decay times , which can be revealed  
by their spectral content.  
Oscillatory Transient  
• lt is a sudden, non—power frequency change
in  the steady-state condition of voltage,
current,  or both.  
• lt includes both positive and negative polarity
 values.  
• It consists of a voltage or current whose
 instantaneous value changes polarity
 rapidly.  
For example  
• l.2 *50-µs 2000-volt (V)impulsive  
transient nominally rises from zero to its  
peak value of 2000 V in l.2µs and then  
decays to half its peak value in 50µs .  
• The most common cause of impulsive  
transients is lightning
It is described by its spectral content
(predominate frequency),duration, and
magnitude.  
The spectral content subclasses defined in
Table 2.2  
are  
» High  
» Medium  
» Low frequency  
 
Oscillatory Transient
• lt is a sudden, non—power frequency
change in  the steady-state condition of
voltage, current,  or both.  
• lt includes both positive and negative polarity
 values.  
• lt consists of a voltage or current whose
 instantaneous value changes polarity
 rapidly.
HF: Primary Freq component > 500khz mesdin  
MicroSecduration Local sys response to Imp Tr  
Med F req: Primary Freq component 5-500khzmesdin  
MicroSec duration -Back-to-back capacitor  
energization  
Low Freq: Primary Freq component <5khzmesdin  
MicroSecduration 0.3 to 50 ms -Cap Bank  
energization (T&D)  
Long-Duration Voltage Variations  
• Long-duration variations encompass root-
 mean- square (rms) deviations at power
 frequencies for longer than l min.  
• It can be either overvoltage or under
voltages  
 
•  Overvoltage sand under voltages generally  
are not the result of system faults, but are  
caused by load variations on the system  
and system switching operations.  
• Long-duration variations are typically  
displayed as plots of rms voltage versus  
time.  
OVERVOLTAGE  
• Increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent
at the  power frequency for a duration longer than 1
min.  
CAUSES  
l. load switching (e. g.. switching Offer large load or
energizing a  capacitor bank)  
2. Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in
system  
overvoltage.  
EFFECT  
• The overvoltage result because either the system is too
weak for  the desired voltage regulation or voltage
controls are inadequate.  
 UNDERVOLTAGE  
- Decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90
 percent at the power frequency for a duration
 longer than l min.  
- Due to switching events that are the opposite
of  the events that cause overvoltage.  
CAUSES  
I. A load switching on or a capacitor bank  
switching off can cause an under voltage until  
voltage regulation equipment on the system
can  bring the voltage back to within
tolerances.  
2. Overloaded circuits can result in under
voltages  
SUSTAINED INTERRUPTION  
When the supply voltage has been zero for a period  
of time in excess of 1 min, the long-duration voltage  
variation is considered a sustained interruption.  
This term has been defined to be more specific  
regarding the absence of voltage for long periods.  
SHORT DURATION VARIATIONS  
This category encompasses the lEC category of voltage dips and short interruptions  
Each type of variation can be designated as.  
1 instantaneous.  
2 . Momentary-  
3.Temporary_ depending on its duration as defined in Table 2.2.  
CAUSES  
1. Fault conditions  
2.The energization of large loads which require high starting  
currents  
3. Intermittent loose connections in power wiring, Depend on the  
fault location and the system conditions. the fault can cause either  
temporary voltage drops ( sags ). voltage rises ( swells ), or a complete  
INTERRUPTION  
An interruption occurs when the supply voltage  
or load current decreases to less than 0.1 pu for a  
period of time not exceeding 1 min.  
CAUSES  
1.Power system faults  
2.Equipment failures  
3.Control malfunctions
2.5. INTERRUPTION  
• The interruptions are measured by their duration since
the  voltage magnitude is always less than 10 percent of
nominal.  
• The duration of an interruption due to a fault on the
utility  system is determined by the operating time of
utility protective  devices.  
• Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit the
interruption  caused by a nonpermanent fault to less
than 30 cycles.
• Delayed reclosing of the protective device may cause  
momentary or temporary interruption.
• The duration of an interruption due to equipment  
malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.  
• Figure 16 shows such a momentary interruption during  
which voltage on one phase sags to about 20 percent for  
about 3 cycles and then drops to zero for about 1.8 s until  
the reclose closes back in.  
• Delayed reclosing of the protective device may
cause  a momentary or temporary interruption.
• The duration of an interruption due to equipment  
malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.  
• Figure 16 shows such a momentary interruption
during  which voltage on one phase sags to about 20
percent for  about 3 cycles and then drops to zero
for about 1.8 s until  the reclose closes back in.  
Sags (dips)  
A sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu
in  rms voltage or current at the power
frequency for  durations from 0.5 cycle to 1
min.  
Causes of Voltage sags  
—Associated with system faults —Energization
of  heavy loads —Starting of large motors.
Interruption/under voltage/over voltage: these
are very common type disturbances. During power
interruption, voltage level of a particular bus goes
down to zero. The interruption may occur for short or
medium or long period. Under voltage and over voltage
are fall and rise of voltage levels of a particular bus
with respect to standard bus voltage. Sometimes under
and over voltages of little percentage is allowable; but
when they cross the limit of desired voltage level, they
are treated as disturbances. Such disturbances are
increasing the amount of reactive power drawn or
deliver by a system, insulation problems and voltage
stability.
Voltage/Current unbalance
voltage and current unbalance may occur due to
the
unbalance in drop in the generating system or
transmission system and unbalanced loading.
During unbalance, negative sequence components
appear. T hampers system performance may
change loss and in some cases it may hamper
voltage
stability.
Harmonics:
Harmonics are the alternating components having frequencies other
than fundamental present in voltage and current signals. There are
various reasons
for harmonics generation like non linearity, excessive use of
semiconductor
based switching devices, different design constrains, etc.
Harmonics have adverse effects on generation, transmission and
distribution system as well as onconsumer equipment's also.
.
• Harmonics are classified as integer harmonics, sub
harmonics and inter harmonics.
• Integer harmonics have frequencies which are integer
multiple of fundamental frequency, sub harmonics have
frequencies which are smaller than fundamental frequency
and inter harmonics have frequencies which are greater than
fundamental frequencies.
• Among these entire harmonics integer and inter harmonics
are very common in power system.
• Occurrence of sub harmonics is comparatively smaller than
others. Sometimes harmonics are classified: time harmonics
and spatial (space) harmonics. Obviously their causes of
occurrence are different. Harmonics are in general are not
welcome and desirable.
Voltage sag: it is a short duration disturbance. During voltage sag, r.
m. s.
voltage falls to a very low level for short period of time.
Voltage swell: it is a short duration disturbance. During voltage sag,
r. m. s. voltage increases to a very high level for short period of time.
Flicker: it is undesired variation of system frequency.
Ringing waves: oscillatory disturbances of decaying magnitude for
short period of time is known as ringing wave. It may be called a
special type transient. The frequency of a flicker may or may not be
same with the system frequency.
Outage: it is special type of interruption where power cut has
occurred for not more than 60 s.
Figure: Power quality problems (a) Voltage swells (b) Voltage sags (c) Voltage
interruption (d) Frequency variation (e) Voltage unbalance. (f) Harmonics
Quality degradation of electric power is mainly occurred due to power
line disturbances
such as
• impulses
• notches
• voltage sag and swell
• voltage and current
• unbalances
• momentary interruption
• harmonic distortions
• Therefore, different standards and guidelines are mentioned in the
International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) classification of
power quality and relevant IEEE standard.
Figure The common power quality problems.
Characterization and Localization of Power Quality disturbances
Electric power quality describes the variation of voltage,
current and frequency in a power system.
• wide variations of these three parameters
• Some electronics devices are not so tolerant of these
variations.
• Demand of quality power at the consumer premises.
• To ensure uninterrupted and quality power for the
power producers. Quality issues especially in
deregulated system.
Poor power quality sources can be divided in two groups:
(1) actual loads, equipment and components
(2) subsystems of transmission and distribution systems.
Quality degradation of electric power is mainly occurred due to
power line disturbances such as impulses, notches, voltage sag
and swell, voltage and current
unbalances, momentary interruption and harmonic distortions.
 Poor Power Quality are due to harmonics and reactive power.
 Solid state control of ac power using high speed switches are
the main source of harmonics whereas different non-linear
loads contribute to excessive drawl of reactive power from
supply.
Different standards and guidelines
(1) International Electro-technical Commission (IEC)
Classification of Power System Disturbances

• Power quality problems occur due to various types of electrical

disturbances. Most of the electric power quality disturbances depend
on amplitude or frequency or on both frequency and amplitude.
• Based on the duration of existence of electric power quality
disturbances, events can divided into short, medium or long type.
 Effect of Unbalance
• Unbalance in power system is related to the power system stability
problem.
• Unbalance may cause excessive drawl of reactive power, mal-operation of
equipment, mal-operation of measuring instruments and shortening of life
span of different appliances.
• Reactive power compensation required for individual phase will differ from
each other.
• Performance of FACTs controller degrades during voltage unbalance. During
current unbalance negative sequence component appears.
• It increases net current in some phase and decreases net current in other
phase. This results in unequal loss in phases and unequal heating.
• Three phase motors draw unbalanced current from unbalanced supply
system. In such situation, unequal heating and oscillation in torque hamper
motors’ performance. This hampers accurate operation of relays and
Unbalance
• Unbalance is a common type of power quality problem. It refers to the
deviation of phase voltages and phase currents from their rated values
with respect to magnitude and phase.
• Sequence components occur during unbalance in three phase system.
For this reason unbalance is assessed with respect to the sequence
components present in the system.
• Using the well-known Fortescue transformations, the positive-,
negative-, and zero-sequence voltages in three-phase sinusoidal power
systems can be calculated.
Unbalance occurs in three-phase power systems when single phase loads
do not draw the same amount of current on each phase
 Unbalance in three phase power systems
A power system is balanced if its three phase currents (and three
phase voltages) are equal in magnitudes and phase-shifted by
120± from each other if not, the system is unbalanced. The following
equations are the expression of an unbalanced three phase system.

Ia, Ib, Ic are the amplitudes of the three phases respectively which can be
different from each other. Øa,Øb,Øc are the phase angles of the three phases that
might not be shifted by 120± from each other
Unbalance in Three Phase Power System
• Unbalance in power system is defined as deviation in magnitude of
voltage/current of any one or two of the three phases.
• When voltages of a three-phase system are not identical in magnitude
and/or the phase differences between them are not exactly 120 ◦,
voltage unbalance occurs. It is often called as voltage unbalance.
• Thus, unbalance in power system can be expressed as the percentage
change in line currents or voltages from rated values.
• For change in line current in any phase among the three phases R,Y
and B, unbalance will be

where, I = rated current and i = actual current

• Similarly, in respect of voltage, unbalance can be written as
where, V= rated voltage and v = actual voltage
Unbalance in power system is also characterized with the
help of symmetrical
components. “True” unbalance factor UF is defined as

• V+ and V− represent the root mean square (RMS) voltages of the

positive and negative sequence components, respectively.
• Line voltage drop due to unbalance has been formulated for some
events in power system.
• A lot of research work has been done to assess the unbalance. Some of
them have not measured phase angles.
 Sources of Unbalance
Unbalance may generate due to the unequal drops in individual phase or
unbalanced in three phase loading. Even it may happen due the source, load,
improper grounding, etc. The main causes of voltage due to unbalance in power
systems are
• Unbalanced single-phase loading in a three-phase system: most of the
domestic loads and industrial lighting loads are single phase. However, these
loads are fed from three phase supply. If the load divisions among different
phases are not coordinated, the phase parameters may differ from each other
causing unbalanced demand from the supply.
• Overhead transmission lines that are not transposed,
• Blown out fuses in one phase of a three-phase capacitor bank
• Severe voltage unbalance (e.g., >5%), which can result from single phasing
conditions.
 Effect of Unbalance
• Unbalance in power system is related to the power system stability
problem.
• Unbalance may cause excessive drawl of reactive power, mal-operation of
equipment, mal-operation of measuring instruments and shortening of life
span of different appliances.
• Reactive power compensation required for individual phase will differ from
each other.
• Performance of FACTs controller degrades during voltage unbalance. During
current unbalance negative sequence component appears.
• It increases net current in some phase and decreases net current in other
phase. This results in unequal loss in phases and unequal heating.
• Three phase motors draw unbalanced current from unbalanced supply
system. In such situation, unequal heating and oscillation in torque hamper
motors’ performance. This hampers accurate operation of relays and
non- frequency sensitive load change in
context of Electrical Power System?

Non- frequency sensitive- which is not

dependent on frequency i.e. heating and
lighting loads which can be regarded as
resistive and the impedance of such a circuit
remain same irrespective of change in
frequency. When these loads change, the
system will be independent of any frequency
changes.