7-Gas Transportation and Storage

Gas Transportation and
Storage
EE053-3.5-3
Gas Engineering
Outline
• Gas Production (IPR)
• Gas Transportation
• Pipeline Design
• Reynold’s Number
• Friction Factor
• Pipeline Equations (Weymouth, Panhandle A & B,
Clinedist)
• Series, parallel and looped line
• Gas storage
Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Slide <2> of 13

Transportation
• Transmission of natural gas to consumer can be divided into

three distinct pipeline units:
1. Gathering system
2. Main trunk line transportation system
3. Distribution system
• Gas transportation focuses on design and operation of natural
gas pipelines in onshore and offshore gas fields.
3
Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides
Gathering System
• A gathering system includes pumps, headers,
separators, emulsion treaters, tanks, regulators, compressors,
dehydrators, valves and associated equipment.

Trunkline
• A natural gas or oil line using pipeline transport:

– Trunkline LNG, a liquid natural gas terminal in Lake Charles, Louisiana
– Trunkline Pipeline, a pipeline that runs across regions

Distribution System
• Gas distribution system is a network of external pipelines from a
source to a gas consumer service line as well as facilities and
engineering devices for them.

Pipeline Design
• Factors to be considered in the design of long-distance gas pipe-
lines are as follows:
- The volume and composition of the gas to be transmitted
- The length of the line
- The type of terrain to be crossed
- Maximum elevation of the route
Note: Pipe line must be larger to accommodate the greater

volume of gas.
• Several designs are usually made so that the economical one

can be selected. Maximum capacity of a pipeline is limited by
higher transmission pressures and strong materials.
7
Sizing Pipeline
• Capacity of gas transmission is controlled mainly by its size.
• Complex equations have been developed for sizing natural

gas pipelines in various flow conditions:
- Weymouth equation
- Panhandle equation
- Modified-Panhandle equation
- Clinedist equation
• By using these equations, various combinations of pipe

diameter and wall thickness for a desired rate of gas
throughout can be calculated.
8
Friction Factor
Friction losses:
o Internal losses due to viscosity effects
o Losses due to the roughness of the inner wall of the
pipeline
f = f (NRe, eD)
Friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number and of the
relative roughness of pipe.
NRe = Reynolds Number
e = absolute roughness of pipe
D = diameter of pipe
9
Equation that relates lost work per unit length of pipe and
the flow variables is
10
Reynolds Number
• Reynolds number (NRe) is defined as the ratio of fluid

momentum force to viscous shear force.
• The Reynolds number can be expressed as a dimensionless
group defined as
11
Reynolds number is used as a parameter to distinguish
between flow regimes.
Flow Type NRe, smooth pipes

Laminar < 2000
Critical 2000 – 3000
Transition 3000 - 4000
Turbulent > 4000
12
• For all practical purposes, the Reynolds number for
natural gas flow problems may be expressed as
13
Relative Roughness
• From a microscopic sense, wall roughness is not uniform, and

thus the distance from the peaks to valleys on the wall surface will
vary greatly.
• This is measured in terms of absolute roughness, E
• eD, is defined as the ratio of the absolute roughness to the pipe internal
diameter:
and D have the same unit.
If roughness not known, take E =0.0006

14
Absolute Roughness
Type of Pipe (in.)
Aluminiun pipe 0.0002
Plastic-lined pipe 0.0002- 0.0003
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.0018
Asphalted cast iron 0.0048
Galvanized iron 0.006
Cast iron 0.0102
.
Cement-lined 0.012-0.12
Riveted steel 0.036-0.36
Commonly used well tubing and line pipe

New pipe 0.0005-0.0007
12-months old 0.00150
24-months old 0.00175
15
Moody Friction Chart
16
Friction Flow for Laminar- Single Flow
Friction factor for laminar flow can be determined analytically.
17
Friction Factor for Turbulent Single-
Phase Flow
• Out of a number of empirical correlations for friction

factors are available, only the most accurate ones are
presented.
For smooth wall pipes in the turbulent flow region
Valid over a wide range of Reynolds numbers
18
For rough pipes fully developed turbulent flow :
Nikuradse’s Correlation
Note: Velocity profile and pressure gradient are very

sensitive to pipe roughness.
19
Colebrook equation
Applicable to smooth pipes and transition and fully turbulent flow.

Eqn is not explicit in friction factor f. Use Newton-Raphson Iteration.
Jain equation
Jain presented an explicit correlation for friction factor.
20
Pipeline Equation
• Weymouth equation
• Panhandle A equation
• Modified Panhandle B equation
• Clinedist equation
• Weymouth equation is preferred for smaller-diameter

lines (D < 15 in).
• Panhandle equation and the Modified Panhandle

equation are better for larger-sized lines.
21
Basic Equation for Horizontal Flow
• Basic pipeline flow equation for steady state horizontal flow

where unit of gas flow rate is in scfh (standard cubic feet/hour)
is:
where qh = scf/hr
22
Variables in horizontal pipeline flow equation are;
L = length of pipe (mile)

D = Diameter of pipe(in.)
P1 = upstream pressure(psia)
P2 = downstream pressure(psia)
z = compressibility factor
Tb = base temperature(°R)
Pb = base pressure (psia)
23
Friction Factor
• Trial and error calculation procedure is needed.
• To eliminate trial and error calculation, Weymouth proposed

that f varies as a function of diameter in inches as follows:
24
Weymouth Equation for Horizontal
Flow
With this simplification, the equation reduces to:
where qh = hourly gas flow rate scf/hr

D = pipe internal diameter, ID (in)
L = Length of pipe, (mile)
which is the form of the Weymouth equation commonly used

in the natural gas industry.
25
• Assumptions for use of the Weymouth equation including:
• no mechanical work
• steady flow
• isothermal flow
• Constant compressibility factor
• horizontal flow
• and no kinetic energy change.
These assumptions can affect accuracy of calculation results.
26
Example 1
For the following data given for a horizontal pipeline, predict

gas flow rate in cubic ft/hr (scfh)through the pipeline using
Weymouth pipeline equation.
27
The average pressure is:
z factor can be calculated by using the following

equations and z chart.
28
Using the basic pipeline equation:
Using the Weymouth equation:
29
Panhandle A Equation
• Panhandle A equation assumes the following Reynolds

number dependent friction factor:
• Then pipeline flow equation is:
where q is the gas flow rate in scfd measured at Tb and pb,

and other terms are the same as in the Weymouth
30 equation.
Pandhandle B Equation (Modified
Panhandle)
• Panhandle B equation is most widely used for long transmission

and delivery lines, it assumes that f varies as
Then it takes the form,
q = gas flow rate (scfd)

Units are same as in Panhandle A eqn: 31
Clinedist Equation
• Considers the deviation of natural gas from ideal gas through
integration. It takes the following form:
32
Empirical Pipeline Equation
• A general non-iterative pipeline flow equation is written as
q in scfd
• The values of the constants are given in Table for the different pipeline
flow equations.
Table Constants for Empirical Pipeline Flow Equations
33
Exercise 2
Calculate the Gas Flow Rate in SCFD Using Panhandle
(A & B) Equation from Given Data:
Diameter of pipeline = 18.5 in

Length of pipe = 10 miles
Average temperature = 560 deg R
Specific gravity of gas = 0.6
Upstream pressure = 998 psia
Downstream pressure = 913 psia
Standard temperature = 60 deg F
Standard pressure = 14.7 psia
Average z factor = 0.85
Exercise 3
Panhandle A equation
Panhandle B equation

Panhandle A
Substitute the Given Values in This Equation, We Get

Q = (435.87)x(2629.3498)x(46.853059)x(4.85817)
Q = 360.4 MMSCFD
Panhandle B
Substitute the Given Values in This Equation, We Get

Q = (737)x(1606.7358)x(37.98916)x(5.725154)
Q = 350 MMSCFD

Exercise 1
For the following data given for a horizontal pipeline, predict
gas flow rate in ft3/hr through the pipeline by applying suitable
pipeline Equation.
Diameter of pipeline = 16 in
Length = 190 miles
Average temperature = 80 deg F
Specific gravity of gas = 0.63
Upstream pressure = 1050 psia
Downstream pressure = 430 psia
Absolute roughness of pipe = 0.0006-in
Standard temperature = 60 deg F
Standard pressure = 14.7 psia
37
Types of Gas Flow through Pipelines
• It is often desirable to increase the throughout of an existing pipeline by
gathering gas from new gas wells. A common economical solution to
these problems is:
– To place one or more lines in parallel, either partially or throughout the whole length
– To replace a portion of the line with a larger one. This requires calculations involving
flow in series, parallel, and series-parallel (looped lines).
• The philosophy involved in deriving the special relationships used in the

solutions of complex transmission systems is to express the various
lengths and diameters of the pipe in the systems as equivalent lengths of
common diameter or equivalent diameter of a common length. The
equivalent means that both lines will have the same capacity with the
same total pressure drop. For simplicity: Use Weymouth equation.
• The Petroleum Industry utilizes parallel and looped pipelines in order to

decrease pressure drop and increase flow capacity.
Gas Flow in Series
• Pipes of different lengths and different diameters connected

end to end (in series) to form pipelines.
Series Pipeline

Pipelines in Series
Consider a three-segment pipeline in a series of total length L:
(1)
(2)
(3)
40
Adding Eqns: (1), (2) and (3) gives
(4)
OR
(5)
Capacity of a single-diameter (D1) pipeline is expressed as:
(6)
41
Dividing yields:
Figure (a) Sketch of series pipeline

42
Gas Flow in Parallel
• By adding new parallel pipelines, what would be the resulting
increase in capacity?
• What would be the diameter that can obtain the given flow
rate (capacity)?
Parallel Pipeline
Applying the Weymouth equation to each of the three segments
gives:
44
Pipelines in Parallel
Applying the Weymouth equation to each of the three segments

gives:
Dividing yields:
45
Gas Flow in Looped (Parallel-Series)
• It is considered the most complex design of transmission system.
Loop Pipeline

Looped Pipelines
Consider a three-segment looped pipeline. By Applying the

Weymouth equation to all segments:
47
Capacity of a single diameter(D3) pipeline is expressed as:
48
Example 2
Consider a 4-in pipeline that is 10 miles long. Assuming that the

compression and delivery pressures will maintain unchanged,
calculate gas capacity increases by using the following measures of
improvement: (a) Replace 3 miles of the 4 in pipeline by a 6 in
pipeline segment; (b) Place a 6-in parallel pipeline to share gas
transmission; and (c) Loop 3 miles of the 4 in pipeline with a 6 in
pipeline segment.
Solution
(a) Replace 3 miles of the 4-in pipeline by a 6-in pipeline segment;

L = 10 mi
L1 = 7 mi
L2 = 3 mi
49
D1 = 4 in L1 = 7 mi
D2 = 6 in L2 = 3 mi
Applying following equation
= 1.1668, or 16.68% increase in flow capacity

(b) Place a 6-in parallel pipeline to share gas transmission;
D1 = 4 in
D2 = 6 in
= 3.9483, or 295% increase in flow capacity

(c) Loop 3 miles of the 4-in pipeline with a 6-in pipeline
segment.
L = 10 mi
L1 = 3 miD1 = 4 in, D2 = 6 in
L3 = 7 miD3 = 4 in

L = 10 mi
L1 = 3 mi D1 = 4 in, D2 = 6 in
L3 = 7 mi D3 = 4 in
= 1.1791, or 17.91%
increase in flow capacity
53
Exercise 5
1. A 14 in pipeline is delivering gas to Johor Bahru. The

length of pipeline is 203 miles. Assuming that the
calculate gas capacity increases by using the following
measures of improvement:
(a) Replace 80 miles of the 14 in pipeline by a 20 in pipeline

segment;
(b) Place a 20 in parallel pipeline to share gas transmission;
and
(c) Loop 80 miles of the 14 in pipeline with a 20 in pipeline
segment.
54
Exercise 6
2. A 20 in pipeline is delivering gas from Terengganu to
Thailand. The length of pipeline is 750 miles. Assuming that the
calculate gas capacity increases by using the following measures
of improvement:
(a) Replace 175 miles of the 20 in pipeline by a 30 in pipeline

segment;
(b) Place a 30 in parallel pipeline to share gas transmission; and
(c) Loop 200 miles of the 20 in pipeline with a 30 in pipeline
segment.
55
Natural Gas Storage
• Natural gas, like many other commodities, can be stored for

an indefinite period of time in natural gas storage facilities
for later consumption.
• Natural gas is stored during periods of lower demand and

withdrawn during periods of higher demand. Natural gas
storage is most often used to meet seasonal demand.
• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is stored above grounds in

storage tanks that are specially designed to maintain the low
temperatures required to keep the gas in liquid form.

LNG Storage Tanks

Usage
• Balancing the flow in pipeline systems. This is performed by
mainline transmission pipeline companies to maintain
operational integrity of the pipelines, by ensuring that the
pipeline pressures are kept within design parameters.
• Maintaining contractual balance. Shippers use stored gas to

maintain the volume they deliver to the pipeline system and the
volume they withdraw. Without access to such storage facilities,
any imbalance situation would result in a hefty penalty.
• Leveling production over periods of fluctuating demand.

Producers use storage to store any gas that is not immediately
marketable, typically over the summer when demand is low and
deliver it in the winter months when the demand is high.
• Market speculation. Producers and marketers use gas
storage as a speculative tool, storing gas when they believe
that prices will increase in the future and then selling it when it
does reach those levels.
• Insuring against any unforeseen accidents. Gas storage can

be used as an insurance that may affect either production or
delivery of natural gas. These may include natural factors
such as hurricanes, or malfunction of production or
distribution systems.

• Meeting regulatory obligations. Gas storage ensures to some
extent the reliability of gas supply to the consumer at the
lowest cost, as required by the regulatory body. This is why
the regulatory body monitors storage inventory levels.
• Reducing price volatility. Gas storage ensures commodity

liquidity at the market centers. This helps contain natural gas
price volatility and uncertainty.

Base Load vs. Peak Load Storage
• There are basically two uses for natural gas in storage facilities:
– Meeting base load requirements
– Meeting peak load requirements.
• Base load storage capacity is used to meet seasonal demand

increases. Base load facilities are capable of holding enough natural
gas to satisfy long term seasonal demand requirements. Typically, the
turn-over rate for natural gas in these facilities is a year; natural gas is
generally injected during the summer (non-heating season), and
withdrawn during the winter (heating season).
• These reservoirs are larger, but their delivery rates are relatively low,
meaning the natural gas that can be extracted each day is limited.
Instead, these facilities provide a prolonged, steady supply of natural
gas. Depleted gas reservoirs are the most common type of base load
storage facility.
• Peak load storage facilities, on the other hand, are designed to
have high-deliverability for short periods of time, meaning natural
gas can be withdrawn from storage quickly should the need arise.
Peak load facilities are intended to meet sudden, short-term
demand increases.
• These facilities cannot hold as much natural gas as base load

facilities; however, they can deliver smaller amounts of gas more
quickly, and can also be replenished in a shorter amount of time
than base load facilities.
• Peak load facilities can have turn over rates as short as a few days
or weeks. Salt caverns are the most common type of peak load
storage facility, although aquifers may be used to meet these
demands as well.
Underground Natural Gas Storage
• Natural gas may be stored in a number of different ways. It is most
commonly held in inventory underground under pressure in three types
of facilities:
– Depleted natural gas or oil fields
– Natural aquifers
– Salt cavern formations
• Each storage type has its own physical characteristics (porosity,

permeability, retention capability) and economics (site preparation and
maintenance costs, deliverability rates, and cycling capability), which
govern its suitability for particular applications.
• Two important characteristics of an underground storage reservoir are:

– Its capacity to hold natural gas for future use
– The rate at which gas inventory can be withdrawn (deliverability rate)

Depleted Natural Gas/ Oil Fields
• Most existing natural gas storage in the United States is

in depleted natural gas or oil fields that are close to
consumption centers.
• Advantages:
– Conversion of a field from production to storage duty
takes advantage of existing wells, gathering systems,
and pipeline connections.
– Wide availability. Depleted oil and natural gas
reservoirs are the most commonly used underground
storage sites because of their wide availability.

Natural Aquifers
• In some areas, most notably the Midwestern United States,

natural aquifers have been converted to natural gas storage
reservoirs.
• An aquifer is suitable for gas storage if the water-bearing
sedimentary rock formation is overlaid with an impermeable
cap rock.
• Although the geology of aquifers is similar to depleted
production fields, their use for natural gas storage usually
requires more base (cushion) gas and allows less flexibility in
injecting and withdrawing.
• Deliverability rates may be enhanced by the presence of an
active water drive, which supports the reservoir pressure
through the injection and production cycles.
Salt Caverns Formation
• Salt caverns provide very high withdrawal and injection rates

relative to their working gas capacity. Base gas requirements are
relatively low.
• Most salt cavern storage facilities have been developed in salt
dome formations located in the Gulf Coast states. Salt caverns
have also been made (by a process called leaching) in bedded
salt formations in Northeastern, Midwestern, and Southwestern
states.
• Cavern construction is more costly than depleted field
conversions when measured on the basis of dollars per thousand
cubic feet of working gas capacity, but the ability to perform
several withdrawal and injection cycles each year reduces the
per-unit cost of each thousand cubic feet of gas injected and
withdrawn.
Working Gas
• ‘Working gas’ is the volume of natural gas in the storage

reservoir that can be extracted during the normal operation of
the storage facility. This is the natural gas that is being stored
and withdrawn; the capacity of storage facilities normally refers
to their working gas capacity.
• At the beginning of a withdrawal cycle, the pressure inside the

storage facility is at its highest; meaning working gas can be
withdrawn at a high rate. As the volume of gas inside the
storage facility drops, pressure (and thus deliverability) in the
storage facility also decreases. Periodically, underground
storage facility operators may reclassify portions of working gas
as base gas after evaluating the operation of their facilities.

Working Gas Capacity by Type of
Storage

Storage Measures
• Total gas storage capacity: the maximum volume of gas that
can be stored in an underground storage facility by design. It is
determined by the physical characteristics of the reservoir and
installed equipment.
• Total gas volume in storage: the volume of storage in the

underground facility at a particular time.
• Assuming the reservoir pore volume is constant, the STOIIP in

the depleted gas reservoir in standard conditions is Gi, and the
total gas volume in storage facility is G, then the cumulative
injected gas volume, Gs is:
Gs = G - G i

•• By employing the formation volume factors at initial and final

conditions:
G = Gi -
=
Where:
Bg = 0.0283 (res ft3/scf)
Gi = 43,560 (scf)

Example 3
• A depleted gas reservoir is converted to natural gas storage. The
reservoir data and conditions are given in the table. Calculate the
total gas volume in the reservoir and the total injected gas volume at
p = 6,000 psi. z is given as 1.07. Assume temperature is constant.
Variable Quantity Unit
A 200 Acre
h 50 Ft
ϕ 0.25
Sw 0.25
γg 0.6
Ti 150 °F
Pi 1,000 psi
zi 0.91

Solution
B
• gi = 0.0283 x = 0.0157 res ft3/scf
Bg = 0.0283 x = 0.0031 res ft3/scf
At 1,000 psi,
Gi = 43,560 x = 5,202 MMscf
Total gas volume in storage at 6,000 psi can be calculated as:
G = 5,202 x = 21,216 MMScf
The cumulative gas volume injected:
Gs = 21,216 – 5,202 = 16,000 MMScf

How Long will Natural Gas Last?
• "The U.S. Energy Information Administration

estimates that as of January 1, 2016, there were
about 2,462 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of technically
recoverable resources of dry natural gas in the
United States. At the rate of U.S. natural gas
consumption in 2016 of about 27.5 Tcf per year, the
United States has enough natural gas to last
about 90 years. The actual number of years will
depend on the amount of natural gas consumed
each year, natural gas imports and exports, and
additions to natural gas reserves.
END OF GAS ENGINEERING
SEE YOU NEXT SEMESTER!
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Gas Transportation and

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Slide <2> of 13

• Transmission of natural gas to consumer can be divided into

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Slide <2> of 13

• A natural gas or oil line using pipeline transport:

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Slide <2> of 13

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides Slide <2> of 13

Note: Pipe line must be larger to accommodate the greater

• Several designs are usually made so that the economical one

• Capacity of gas transmission is controlled mainly by its size.

• Complex equations have been developed for sizing natural

• By using these equations, various combinations of pipe

• Reynolds number (NRe) is defined as the ratio of fluid

Flow Type NRe, smooth pipes

• From a microscopic sense, wall roughness is not uniform, and

• This is measured in terms of absolute roughness, E

and D have the same unit.

If roughness not known, take E =0.0006

Commonly used well tubing and line pipe

Friction factor for laminar flow can be determined analytically.

• Out of a number of empirical correlations for friction

For smooth wall pipes in the turbulent flow region

Valid over a wide range of Reynolds numbers

Note: Velocity profile and pressure gradient are very

Applicable to smooth pipes and transition and fully turbulent flow.

Jain presented an explicit correlation for friction factor.

• Weymouth equation is preferred for smaller-diameter

• Panhandle equation and the Modified Panhandle

• Basic pipeline flow equation for steady state horizontal flow

L = length of pipe (mile)

• Trial and error calculation procedure is needed.

• To eliminate trial and error calculation, Weymouth proposed

With this simplification, the equation reduces to:

where qh = hourly gas flow rate scf/hr

which is the form of the Weymouth equation commonly used

These assumptions can affect accuracy of calculation results.

For the following data given for a horizontal pipeline, predict

z factor can be calculated by using the following

Using the Weymouth equation:

• Panhandle A equation assumes the following Reynolds

• Then pipeline flow equation is:

where q is the gas flow rate in scfd measured at Tb and pb,

• Panhandle B equation is most widely used for long transmission

Then it takes the form,

q = gas flow rate (scfd)

• A general non-iterative pipeline flow equation is written as

Table Constants for Empirical Pipeline Flow Equations

Diameter of pipeline = 18.5 in

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides

Substitute the Given Values in This Equation, We Get

Substitute the Given Values in This Equation, We Get

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides

• The philosophy involved in deriving the special relationships used in the

• The Petroleum Industry utilizes parallel and looped pipelines in order to

• Pipes of different lengths and different diameters connected

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides

Consider a three-segment pipeline in a series of total length L:

Capacity of a single-diameter (D1) pipeline is expressed as:

Figure (a) Sketch of series pipeline

Applying the Weymouth equation to each of the three segments

• It is considered the most complex design of transmission system.

Module Code and Module Title Title of Slides

Consider a three-segment looped pipeline. By Applying the