Measuring the Friction Factor in Small Pipes

Objective
To study the variation in friction factor, f, used in the Darcy Formula with the Reynolds number in both
laminar and turbulent flow. The friction factor will be measured as a function of Reynolds number and the
roughness will be calculated using the Colebrook equation.

Theory
The loss of head resulting from the flow of a fluid through a pipeline is expressed by the Darcy Formula

L V2
hl  f 1.1
D 2g
where hf is the loss of head (units of length) and the average velocity is V. The friction factor, f, varies with
Reynolds number and a roughness factor.

Laminar flow
The Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow indicates that the head loss is independent of surface
roughness.

32 LV
hl  1.2
 gD 2
Thus in laminar flow the head loss varies as V and inversely as D2. Comparing equation 1.1 and equation 1.2
it can be shown that

64 64
f  1.3
VD R
indicating that the friction factor is proportional to viscosity and inversely proportional to the velocity, pipe
diameter, and fluid density under laminar flow conditions. The friction factor is independent of pipe
roughness in laminar flow because the disturbances caused by surface roughness are quickly damped by
viscosity.
Equation 1.2 can be solved for the pressure drop as a function of total discharge to obtain
128 LQ
p  1.4
 D4

Turbulent flow
When the flow is turbulent the relationship becomes more complex and is best shown by means of a graph
since the friction factor is a function of both Reynolds number and roughness. Nikuradse showed the
dependence on roughness by using pipes artificially roughened by fixing a coating of uniform sand grains to
the pipe walls. The degree of roughness was designated as the ratio of the sand grain diameter to the pipe
diameter (/D).
The relationship between the friction factor and Reynolds number can be determined for every relative
roughness. From these relationships, it is apparent that for rough pipes the roughness is more important than
the Reynolds number in determining the magnitude of the friction factor. At high Reynolds numbers
(complete turbulence, rough pipes) the friction factor depends entirely on roughness and the friction factor
can be obtained from the rough pipe law.
 1  3.7 D 
 2log   1.5
f   
For smooth pipes the friction factor is independent of roughness and is given by the smooth pipe law.

1  Re f 
 2 log   1.6
f  2.51 
The smooth and the rough pipe laws were developed by von Karman in 1930.
Many pipe flow problems are in the regime designated “transition zone” that is between the smooth and
rough pipe laws. In the transition zone head loss is a function of both Reynolds number and roughness.
Colebrook developed an empirical transition function for commercial pipes. The Moody diagram is based on
the Colebrook equation in the turbulent regime.

1  D 2.51 
 2log    1.7
f  3.7 Re f 

The Colebrook equation can be used to determine the absolute roughness, , by experimentally measuring
the friction factor and Reynolds number.

 1
2.51 
  3.7 D 10 2 f
  1.8
 Re f 

Alternatively the explicit equation for the friction factor derived by Swamee and Jain can be solved for the
absolute roughness.

0.25
f 2
1.9
   5.74  
log  3.7 D  Re0.9  
  
When solving for the roughness it is important to note that the quantity in equation 1.9 that is
squared is negative!

 2-1f 5.74 
  3.7 D 10  0.9  1.10
 Re 

Equations 1.8 and 1.10 are not equivalent and will yield slightly different results with the error a
function of the Reynolds number.

Experimental Apparatus
The experimental apparatus consists of a pressure reducing valve, shutoff valve, flow control valve,
a test section of tubing with pressure taps and a pressure transducer (Figure 1-1). The pressure-
reducing valve is used to minimize the effects of pressure fluctuations in the tap water supply. A 10-
cm-diameter volumetric detector will be used to measure the flow rates. A section of 3/8” OD
tubing should be installed between the flow control valve and the test section so the flow can
become laminar.
 Experimental Methods Volumetric
Detector
The experiment consists of
measuring the head loss in a length of
tubing as a function of discharge. Head
loss will be measured in small diameter
brass pipe using pressure transducers. Tap Pressure Flow 7 or 200 kPa
reducing pressure sensor
Discharge will be obtained by water
valve
control
supply valve
measuring the volume of discharge over Shut off
valve
a time interval using a volumetric
detector. An 85 cm section of tubing
50+ cm section Test section 7 kPa pressure
with an inside diameter of 3.4 mm will of 3/8” tubing sensor
be used as the test section. Figure 1-1. Schematic of the test apparatus.
1) Measure and record the distance
between pressure ports.
2) Make sure the cold water tap is fully open. Table 1-1. Recommended
3) Open the needle valve slowly and purge all air from the tubing. measurements.
4) Close the needle valve. Pressure Desired
5) Verify that the tubes connecting the pressure sensors to the ports transducer head loss
contain water and if necessary purge the air by carefully (for head loss) (cm)
removing the pressure sensor while clamping the tubing between 7 kPa 1
your finger and thumb. After the pressure sensor is removed 7 kPa 2
allow a small amount of water to discharge into a sponge and
7 kPa 4
then reclamp and reconnect the pressure sensor. Be very careful
to not get the outside of the pressure sensor wet! 7 kPa 8
7 kPa 16
6) Open the needle valve again to ensure that the test section is full
of water.
7 kPa 32
200 kPa 64
7) Close the needle valve.
200 kPa 120
8) Open the Easy Data software. 200 kPa 250
9) Verify that the data frequency is set to 1 Hz. 200 kPa 500
200 kPa 1000
10) Set the output of the 3 sensors to zero by clicking on at the
200 kPa max
top of the Easy Data window.

11) Enable logging data and create a new file in the cee 331 folder.
12) Open the needle valve until the head loss as recorded by the 7 kPa pressure sensor is the desired value
(see Table 1-1)

13) Use the ability to write notes in the data file to record that you are acquiring data at a stable flow
rate (As an example, type in “begin 1 cm head loss”).
14) Record data for 30 seconds or until the volumetric detector fills up!
15) Record a note in the data file indicating the end of the good data before you change the flow rate! (Type
“end 1 cm head loss.”)
16) Repeat steps 12-15 until you have acquired data for all the desired flow rates, remembering to change the
pressure transducer as needed. (Note that when you change the pressure transducer you should stop
acquiring data and then restart by repeating steps 4-11)
 Data Analysis
1) What is the advantage of expressing the friction factor as a function of the Reynolds number rather than
as a function of the flow rate?
2) Determine the absolute roughness, , for the brass tubing using equation 1.8.
3) Create a diagram similar to the one created by Moody showing the friction factor as a function of
Reynolds number (log-log plot). Clearly indicate the laminar and turbulent regions. In addition to your
data, plot the equation obtained by Hagen-Poiseuille in the laminar region and the Swamee-Jain equation
in the turbulent region using your best estimate of the roughness of the brass tubing. Make sure that when
plotting equations that you plot sufficient points to create smooth curves and that you don’t show any
“data” points.
4) Why are two different pressure transducers used to measure the head loss? (The answer isn't explicitly in
the lab manual!)
 Lab Prep Notes
Setup
1) Configure the top row of ports to have a maximum voltage of 100 mV. The middle row of ports should
have a maximum voltage of 20 mV.
2) Plug the 2 7-kPa sensors into the middle row of ports. Plug the 200-kPa sensor into the top row of ports.
3) Set up the physical apparatus and create configuration files for the Easy data software. The pressure
sensors used to measure head loss should be configured to measure head loss in cm. The pressure sensor
for the volumetric detector should be configured to measure volume in L. Although only one of the head
loss sensors will be used at a time, configure the software to monitor both of them so the same
configuration can be used for the entire experiment.
4) Install a 3/8” valve and 3/8” tubing from the port near the bottom of the volumetric detector so that it can
easily be drained.
5) Use 3/8” tubing to connect the tap at the sink to the pressure regulators.
6) Set the screw on the pressure regulators so that the effluent (regulated) pressure is reduced by
approximately 10 kPa from the pressure of the cold water tap.

Table 1-2. Equipment list.

Description Supplier Catalog
number
Pressure Omega PX26-001DV
transducer
Pressure Omega PX26-030DV
transducer
Nupro angled Rochester Valve B-6JNA
3/8 swage valve & Fitting Co.,
INC.
3/8" OD tubing Cole-Parmer H-06490-15
Pressure reducer ID Booth FB-38
Volumetric CEE shop
detector
Pipe test section