PILE FOUNDATION

G S YADAV
Professor Bridges 2
 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
• ADEQUATE GRIP- BELOW DEEPEST ANTICIPATED
SCOUR
• DEPTH OF FOUNDATION BELOW WATER LEVEL
FOR Qf ( design discharge for foundation )
 NOT LESS THAN 1.33 X MAX DEPTH OF SCOUR
• SHALL NOT REST ON SLOPING ROCK STRATA
• DYNAMIC AUGMENT NEED NOT BE CONSIDERED
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• BROAD CALSSIFICATION
– DRIVEN (DISPLACEMENT PILES)
– BORED (REPLACEMENT PILE)
• ON THE BASIS OF MATERIAL
– TIMBER
– STEEL
– PCC
– RCC
– PSC
– COMPOSITE
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
– DRIVEN PRECAST PILES
– DRIVEN CAST IN SITU PILES
– BORED PRECAST PILES
– BORED CAST IN SITU PILES

• MODE OF LOAD TRANSMISSION

– END BEARING PILES
– FRICTION PILES
– FRICTION CUM END BEARING PILES
 CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
• SECTIONAL AREA
– CIRCULAR
– SQUARE
– TUBULAR
– OCTAGONAL
– H-SECTION
• SIZE
– MICRO (MINI) PILES (<150 mm)
– SMALL DIAMETER PILE (>150 mm < 600 mm)
– LARGE DIAMETER PILE (>600 mm)
CLASSIFICATION OF PILES

• INCLINATION

– VERTICAL PILES

– RAKER (BATTER PILES)

 CONSTRUCTION OF PILE FOUNDATION
• DRIVEN PRECAST PILES
– DROP HAMMER
– SINGLE/ DOUBLE ACTING HAMMER
– DIESEL HAMMER
– VIBRATORY HAMMER
• DRIVEN CAST IN SITU PILES
– STEEL CASING PIPE WITH SHOE AT BOTTOM DRIVEN TO
REQD DEPTH
– CASTING AFTER PLACING REINFORCEMENT CAGE
 CONSTRUCTION OF PILE FOUNDATION

• BORED CAST IN SITU PILES

– GUIDE CASING OF 3-4 m AT TOP OF BORE HOLE
– BAILER – CHIESEL
– BENTONITE SLURRY FOR STABILISATION
– FLUSHING
– CONCRETING AFTER PLACING REIN. CAGE
– TREMIE METHOD OF CONCRETING
– CONCRETE GRADE M 20 OR HIGHER
– HIGH SLUMP CONCRETE
END BEARING PILE
FRICTION PILES
DRIVEN PILING
BORED PILING
 DRIVEN CAST IN SITU
• Driving a permanent
or temporary casing
and filling with plain
or reinforced
concrete
DRIVING OF PILE
INSTALLATION OF BORED CAST IN SITU
PILES

• BAILER AND CHISEL METHOD

• AUGUR BORING
• BORING USING OSCILLATORS
• VIBRATORY DRILLING RIGS
BAILER AND CHISEL METHOD
AUGAR
BORING
UNDER REAMING RIG
 BORED CAST IN SITU PILES
• Stabilization of bore

Drilling Mud Circulation

(Bentonite Slurry)
Bentonite is impure clay consisting of
Montmorillonite.
Na cation responsible for support
 TREMIE CONCRETING
• CONCRETE TO BE RICH IN CEMENT (MIN 370 KG/ M 3), SLUMP –
150 -180 mm
• 10% EXTRA CEMENT FOR UNDER WATER CONCRETING
• CASING- TEMP/PERMANENT
• SLIDING PLUG/STEEL PLATE FUSHED AHEAD OF FIRST CHARGE –
TO PREVENT MIXING OF WATER
• HOPPER AND TREMIE SHOULD BE CLOSED SYSTEM
• DIA OF TREMIE PIPE – 200mm FOR 20mm AGGREGARE
• CONCRETING TO BE UNINTERRUPTED
• TOP OF CONCRETE IN PILE – ABOVE CUTOFF LEVEL
• MIN EMBEDMENT IN PILE CAP – 50 mm
TREMIE CONCRETING
 SOCKETTING IN ROCK
• FOR THE END BEARING PILES
 SOUND RELATIVELY HOMOGENOUS ROCK
INCLUDING GRANITE AND GNEISS -- 1 TO
2D
 MODERATELY WEATHERED CLOSELY FORMED
INCLUDING SCHIST & SLATE ---- 2 TO 3D
 SOFT ROCK --- 3 TO 4D
 SEQUENCING OF PILING
• NORMALLY FROM CENTRE TO PERIPHERY OR FROM ONE
SIDE TO OTHER
• ORDER OF INSTALLATION SHOULD AVOID CREATING A
COMPACTED BLOCK OF GROUND
• IN STIFF CLAY OR COMPACTED SAND LAYERS – FROM CENTER
TO OUTWARD OR FROM ONE EDGE TO ACROSS THE GROUP
• IN VERY SOFT SOILS – FROM OUTSIDE TO INSIDE
 SPACING OF PILES
• FOR END BEARING PILES
– GOVERNED BY COMPETENCY OF BEARING STRATA
– NOT LESS THAN 2.5 D
• FOR FRICTION PILES
– SUFFICIENTLY APART TO AVOID OVERLAPPING ZONES
– NOT LESS THAN 3 D
• CLOSURE SPACING POSSIBLE IN LOOSE SAND OR FILLINGS
FOR DRIVEN PILES ONLY
• MAX SPACING 4 D
FACTORS INFLUENCING PILE CAPACITY

• SURROUNDING SOIL
• INSTALLATION TECHNIQUE
• SPACING OF PILES
• SYMMETRY OF THE GROUP
• LOCATION OF PILE CAP
• SHAPE OF PILE CAP
• LOCATION OF PILE IN A GROUP
• DRAINAGE CONDITIONS IN SOIL
LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF SINGLE PILE
• DYNAMIC PILE FORMULA – BY USING THE DATA OBTAINED
DURING PILING ( CONSERVATION OF ENERGY)
• STATIC FORMULA – USING SOIL TEST RESULTS
– HILEY’s FORMULA
• MORE RELIABLE FOR NON-COHESIVE SOILS
• NOT RELIABLE FOR COHESIVE SOILS
• LOAD TEST – AFTER 4 WEEKS OF CASTING OF PILE
• RESISTENCE DUE TO SKIN FRICTION AVAILABLE ONLY BELOW
SCOUR LINE
 FACTOR OF SAFETY

• THE MINIMUM FOS – 3 FOR STATIC

FORMULA

• MINIMUM FOS – 2 FOR LOAD TEST

 BEARING CAPACITY OF A PILE GROUP
• MAY BE
– EQUAL TO THE BC OF SINGLE PILE X NO. OF PILES
– LESS THAN THE ABOVE
• FRICTION PILES, CAST OR DRIVEN INTO
PROGRESSIVELY STIFFER MATERIALS & END BEARING
PILES – EQUAL
• FRICTION PILES INSTALLED IN SOFT AND CLAYEY SOILS
– LESS
• DRIVEN PILES IN LOOSE SANDY SOILS – MORE DUE TO
EFFECT OF COMPACTION
 BEARING CAPACITY OF A PILE GROUP
STRATA TYPE OF PILE BC PF PILE GROUP
1. DENSE SAND NOT DRIVEN NO. OF PILES X SPC
UNDERLAIN BY WEAK
DEPOSITS
2. LOOSE SANDY SOILS ½ (NO. OF PILES X SPC)

3. SAND NOT BORED ⅔ (NO. OF PILES X SPC)

UNDERLAIN BY WEAK
DEPOSITS

SPC – SINGLE PILE CAPACITY

FOR PILES DRIVEN INTO SOFT OR MEDIUM CLAYS WITH 3

TO 4 D SPACING – ULTIMATE GROUP CAPACITY = ⅔ OF
THE SUM OF SINGLE PILE CAPACITY
PERMISIBLE TOLERANCE FOR PILES
• ALIGNMENT CONTROL
– VERTICAL PILES – DEVIATION OF 1.5%
– RAKER PILES – DEVIATION OF 4%
• SHIFT
– FOR PILES LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 600 MM DIA
• NOT MORE THAN 75 MM OR D/4 WHICHEVER IS LESS
– FOR MORE THAN 600 MM. DIA. PILES
• 75 MM OR D/10 WHICHEVER IS MORE
• EXCESS DEVIATION BEYOND DESIGN LIMITS –PILE TO BE
REPLACED OR SUPPLEMENTED BY ADDITIONAL PILES
 OVERLOADING OF PILES
• 10% OF THE PILE CAPACITY MAY BE ALLOWED
ON EACH PILE
• MAX OVERLOADING ON A GROUP SHALL BE
RESTRICTED TO 40% OF THE ALLOWABLE
LOAD ON A SINGLE PILE
• SHALL NOT BE ALLOWED AT INITIAL DESIGN
STAGE
 LOAD TEST
• STRESS TEST
– MAINTAINED LOAD TEST
– CONSTANT RATE OF PENETRATION TEST
– LATERAL LOAD TEST
– DYNAMIC LOAD TEST
– CYCLIC LOAD TEST
• STRAIN TEST
– LOW STRAIN INTEGRITY TEST
– HIGH STRAIN INTEGRITY TEST
 PILE LOAD TESTING
(IS-2911 PART-IV)

• Initial Test
– On one or more piles
– Min. 2 tests if past experience of piles in that
area is not available
• Purpose
– To check safe load calculated by static or
dynamic formulae
– Arrive at safe load
 PILE LOAD TESTING
(IS-2911 PART-IV)

• Routine Test
– On ½ percent of piles, can be increased
to 2% depending on strata
• Purpose
– To check safety of piles against safe
load
 PILE LOAD TESTING
(IS-2911 PART-IV)

• VERTICAL LOAD TEST

– Maintained load method
– Cyclic load test (To separate skin friction and end bearing)
– CRP test (Uniform penetration)
• LATERAL LOAD TEST
• PULL OUT TEST
 LOAD TEST-INITIAL TEST
• THE SAFE LOAD ON A SINGLE PILE WILL BE
LEAST OF THE FOLLOWING

– TWO THIRD OF THE FINAL LOAD AT

WHICH TOTAL DISPLACEMENT ATTAINS A
VALUE OF 12 MM

– 50 % OF THE FINAL LOAD AT WHICH THE

TOTAL DISPLACEMNT EQUALS 10 % OF
THE DIA. OF PILE
 LOAD TEST - INITIAL
• THE SAFE LOAD FOR GROUP OF PILES

– FINAL LOAD AT WHICH TOTAL

DISPLACEMENT IS 25 MM

– TWO THIRD OF FINAL LOAD AT WHICH

DISPLACEMENT IS 40 MM
LOAD SETTLEMENT CURVE
SAFE LOAD
Least of 2/3
P1 or ½ P2
FOR GROUP
Least of Load
corrp. to 25 mm
sett or 2/3
corrp. to 40 mm
sett.
LOAD IN
INCREMENTS
OF 20%
Final load
maintained for
24h
 LOAD TEST – ROUTINE TEST
• TEST LOAD WILL BE ATLEAST 1.5
TIMES THE WORKING LOAD

• MAX. SETTLEMENT SHOULD NOT >

12 MM

• FOR GROUP OF PILES MAX.

SETTLEMENT SHOULD NOT > 25 MM
STATIC LOAD TEST
 PILE LOAD TEST
(KENTELEDGE ARRANGEMENT)
PILE LOAD TEST
(WITH ANCHOR PILES)
 DYNAMIC PILE TESTING
• SUPPLEMENTS STATIC TESTING
• HIGH STRAIN TESTING
– PROVIDES DATA ON FORCE & ACCELERATION OF PILE
– EVALUATION OF BEARING CAPACITY
– FACILITATE IMMEDIATE DECISION ABOUT ACCEPTANCE
OR REJECTION OF PILE
• LOW STRAIN TESTING
– FOR TESTING CONTINUITY OF PILE
– INFORMATION ABOUT DIMENSIONS AND CONSISTANCY
OF MATERIAL
ASTM D 4945
 DEFECTS IN CAST IN SITU PILES
• HONEY COMBING DUE TO INADEQUATE VIBRATIONS
• SEGREGATION DUE TO IMPROPER CONCRETE
PLACEMENT METHODS
• WASHOUT OF CEMENT DUE TO GROUNDWATER
FLOW
• CRACKS IN PILE SHAFT DUE TO SHRINKAGE
• INCLUSION OF FOREIGN MATERIAL
• NECKING DUE TO COLLAPSE OF SIDE WALLS DURING
WITHDRAWAL OF TEMPORARY CASING
NECKING IN PILE
NECKING IN PILE
DESIGN OF PILES
 RELEVENT STANDARDS
• Manual on the Design and
Construction of well and pile
Foundations issued by RDSO
• IS 2911- Part I
– Section I – Driven cast in situ piles
– Section II- Bored cast in situ piles
– Section III- Driven precast concrete
piles
• IS 2911- Part IV- Load test
 RELEVENT STANDARDS

• Concrete Bridge code- For

structural design
• IRC- 78- For Road bridge
foundations, can be referred for
guidance
 STEPS OF DESIGN
1. From soil data, depth of scour – fix length
of pile
2. Based on thumb rules, fix dia of pile
3. Calculate load carrying capacity of single
pile using static formulae
4. Do rough design for selected group of piles.
Spacing to be based on thumb rules
5. Check design for load carrying capacity,
settlement, depth etc.
6. Revise design if required
7. Conduct load test to confirm capacity of
pile
8. Do structural design
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• DIA. OF PILE
– Bridge Manual- > normally 1 m
– IRC-78
» Bored piles on land- min. 1 m
» Bored pile in river bridge- min. 1.2 m
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Provisions are for max. dia of 2.5 m
• For Railway bridges dia. Of 1 m to 1.5
m be normally adopted
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• SPACING OF PILE
– IRC-78
» Friction- min. 3 D
» End bearing- Can be reduced to clear distance= D
that is c/c 2D
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» End bearing- hard soil- Min. 2.5 D
» End bearing- hard rock- Min. 2.0 D
» Friction- Min 3.0 D
– RDSO Manual
» Friction – min. 3 D
» End bearing- Min. 2.5 D
» Max. 4 D

• For Railway bridges spacing of 2.5 D to 3.5D

be normally adopted
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• GROUP BEHAVIOR
– IRC-78
» End bearing- If spacing > 2.5 D, no reduction
» Friction- If spacing > 3 D, no reduction
» Check for block failure
» Settlement of group/single pile given for different
width of group/pile dia
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Bored piles- end bearing- No reduction
» Other cases – descriptive guidelines given
– RDSO Manual
» Dense sand not underlying by weak soil – driven
pile – No reduction
» Loose sand soil – 50% reduction
» Sand not underlying by weak soil – bored-
reduction 33%
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• PILE CAP
– IRC-78
» Min. thickness 0.6 m or 1.5 times dia of pile,
whichever is more
» max offset of 150 mm beyond outer face
» Pile to project 50 mm into pile cap
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Offset of 100-150 mm beyond outer face
» Pile to project 50 mm into pile cap
» Should be rigid enough
» Can be designed by taking dispersion at 45
degrees both from substructure and pile upto
centre line
– RDSO Manual
» NIL
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• CONCRETE AND STEEL
– IRC-78
» M 35, Min. cement 400 kg/m3, Max. W/C 0.4,
slump 50mm (150-200 for tremie)
» Min. long reinforcement 0.4%, links min. 8 mm @
150 mm c/c.
» Min cover 75 mm.
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» M 20, Min. cement 400 kg/m3, 10% extra cement
when under water, slump 100- 180 mm (150-180
for tremie)
» Min. long reinforcement 0.4%, Min. spacing
100mm, links min 6 mm @ 150 mm c/c.
» Min cover 40 mm.
– RDSO Manual
» NIL
» CBC to be followed based on environment condition
 IMP. CODAL PROVISIONS
• FOS
– IRC-78
» 2.5 if derived from static formulae for
soil. 5 for end bearing on rock and 10 for
socket resistance.
– IS 2911- Part I, Section 2
» Appendix given for calculating strength
with static formulae
– RDSO Manual
» 3 if derived from static formulae.
» 2 if derived from load test
 LAYOUT

 Accuracy of prime
importance
 Should always be
cross checked by at
least two
independent surveys
 Permanent theodolite
stations with the base
line on the bank will
be established to
mark reference points
 CAISSONS

• In case where the velocity of water in the river is

high making it difficult to construct either an island
or cofferdam to construct a well, caisson type
construction has been used.
• The caisson is pre cast at the shore with the bottom
which is generally provided with openings which are
plugged, and toed to the required position by tugs
and then plugs are removed to permit the caisson
to reach the bottom of the ocean bed.
• Sinking can also be by concreting in pockets
 CAISSONS

Example of caisson foundation in India

are -
Ganga bridge at Mokameh,
Brahmaputra bridge in Assam
Mahanadi Bridge at Cuttack
 Well v/s Pile

 Wells have a large cross sectional area and

hence more bearing capacity of soil.
 q=5.4 N2 B + 16(100+N2)D
 Well are hallow and most of the material is at
periphery. This provides a large section
modulus.
 Useful in controlling deflection against high horizontal force
 it is possible to sink a well through soil having
boulders, logs of wood, whereas Piles can not
be driven
 Well v/s Pile

 In case of wells, it is possible to visually

examine the strata through which sinking is
done and material on which it is finally
resting, hence the bearing capacity of a well
is certain. On other hand bearing capacity
of pile is generally uncertain
 Concreting in the staining of wells is done
under dry conditions and the quality of
concrete is much better than in case of cast
in situ piles.
 Well v/s Pile

 Size of well foundation cannot be reduced

indefinitely and hence it uneconomical to
use well foundation for very small loads,
pile foundations are more suitable.
 O U
K Y
A N
T H
 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA
• SAFETY AGAINST STRENGTH FAILURE
• SAFETY AGAINST DEFORMATIONS
• SAFETY AGAINST DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
• ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE
– LESSER OF
• NETT UBC / FOS
• ALLOWABLE PRESSURE wrt PERMISSIBLE SETTLEMENT
 SHALLOW / OPEN FOUNDATIONS
• NOT RESTING ON COMPRESSIBLE SOIL
• DEPTH OF FOUNDATION IN
– SOIL – 1.75 m BELOW ANTICIPATED SCOUR LINE
• KEY IN
– HARD ROCK – 0.30 m
– SOFT ROCK – 1.5 m
• RESULTANT OF ALL THE FORCES AT THE BASE-
– WITHIN ⅓rd FOR – FOR SOILS
– WITHIN ½ FOR - ROCK
 SUB SOIL INVESTIGATION
• TO DETERMINE
– NATURE, EXTENT AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL/
ROCK STRATUM
– DEPTH OF GROUND WATER TABLE
• RECONNAISANCE SURVEY –
– DATA FROM GEOLOGICAL & TOPO MAPS
– SOIL SURVEY
• PRILIMINARY SURVEY – DEPTH , THICKNESS,
COMPOSITION OF SOIL, LOCATION OF ROCK & GROUND
WATER
• FINAL LOCATION SURVEY - COLLECTION OF SAMPLES,
TESTING FOR SOIL/ROCK PARAMETERS
 METHODS
• OPEN FOUNDATIONS
– TRIAL PIT METHOD-
• VISUAL,
• SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION TESTS
• DEEP FOUNDATIONS
– BORE HOLES –SAMPLES AT EVERY 1.5m
– INSITU FIELD TESTS – FOR COHESIONLESS SOILS
 METHODS
• NON COHESIVE SOILS
– BEARING CAPACITY
• PLATE LOAD TEST
• DYNAMIC CONE PENERTATION TEST
• STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
– SETTLEMENT
• PLATE LOAD TEST
• STANDARD PENETRATION TEST
• COHESIVE SOILS
– BEARING CAPACITY – SAME AS NON-COHESIVE SOILS
– SETTLEMENT- TAKES PLACE OVER A LONG PERIOD
– TOTAL SETTLEMENT
• P = Pi + Poed + Ps
 SETTLEMENT
• P = Pi +Poed + Ps

Pi = IMMEDIATE OR ELASTIC SETTLEMENT

Poed = PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT –
REDUCTION IN VOLUME DUE TO SQEEZING OUT
OF WATER
Ps= SECONDARY SETTLEMENT- REDUCTION IN
VOLUME DUE TO ADJUSTMENT OF INTERNAL
STRUCTURE
 FOUNDATION ON ROCKS
• NATURE OF ROCK FORMATION, DIP, STRIKE, FAULTS
& FISSURES
• UBC – BY SHEAR STRENGTH – BY UNCONFINED
COMPRESSION TEST
• SAMPLE 5 cm DIA X 10 cm LENGTH
• UBC = 4.5 X UCS
• FOS –
– 3 FOR ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE – HOMOGENEOUS
ROCK
– 6 – 8 FOR UNSOUND ROCK
 DEPTH OF FOUNDATION
IN ERODABLE STRATA –

1) NORMAL SCOUR IN THE RIVER

2) LOCAL SCOUR AROUND THE PIER

3) GRIP BELOW THE MAX SCOUR LINE

 NORMAL SCOUR
LACEY’s FORMULA- D = 0.473 (Qf/f)1/3
IF
(a)Design flood continues for sufficient time
(b)River is flowing straight through
incoherent alluvium and are free to adjust
their width of flow and their depth
(c)The width of the river is not less than the
Lacey’s regime width i.e. L= 4.85 Qf.
• f is the silt factor = 1.76m
• Where the width is less than Lacey’s
regime width
dc/d = (w/wc)0.61
 LOCAL SCOUR
• Bridges are generally located on straight reaches and
even where the river is on curve suitable guide bunds
are provided to ensure straight flow
• Bridge piers cause obstruction to the normal flow of
the river. This causes additional local scour
– The scour depends on the shape of the piers, its
width, the direction of flow, the silt factor, the
velocity and depth of flow etc.
– No rational formula has been evolved so far
– The normal practice on the Indian Railways is to
double the scour depth calculated by the Lacey’s
formula to arrive at the maximum scour depth below
H.F.L.
 LOCAL SCOUR
• The depth calculated shall be increased as under-

Nature of the river Depth

of scour
- In a straight reach 1.25D
- At the moderate bend conditions e.g. along 1.5D
apron of guide bund
- At a severe bend 1.75D
- At a right angle bend or at nose of piers 2.0 D
- In severe swirls e.g. against mole head of a 2.5 to
guide bund 2.75D
 LOCAL SCOUR
• Lacey equations are valid for rivers which are in
regime and flow in completely incoherent material

– These conditions are satisfied in Indo-Gangetic plains

and southern rivers flowing towards east coast

– These conditions are not satisfies elsewhere

– Scour depth should be ascertained in other cases as per

spring method given in RDSO technical paper no. 153
“River training and control on guide bund system”
 COFFER DAM
• WATER TIGHT STRUCTURE TO FACILITATE
EXCAVATION/ PILING UNDER FLOWING OR
STAGNANT WATER
• CONSTRUCTED USING – STEEL SHEET PILES,
RCC, TIMBER ETC
• FOR DEPTH OF WATER > 10 m – DOUBLE WALL
COFFER DAM
 LOAD TRANSFER
The ultimate pile capacity is typically expressed as
the sum of the shaft and toe resistances:

Qu = Rs + Rt

This may also be expressed in terms of unit

resistances:

Qu = fs As + qt At

The above equations assume that the ultimate shaft

and toe resistances are simultaneously developed.
 LOAD Qu
Axial Load Soil Resistance

TRANSFER
vs Depth vs Depth

Rs = 0
Rs

Rt
Rt

Uniform
Rt Rs

Triangular
Rt Rs