Single-phase Inverters

Seminar By
Alaa Hussein Zaidan
Supervised By
PROF.DR Jameel Khadim Abed
Content :
Introduction .
Classification of Inverters.
Inverter configurations.
Single-phase, Parallel Capacitor Inverter.
Voltage Source Inverters.
Pulse Width Modulated VSIs.
Single Pulse Width Modulated Inverters.
Load current waveforms.
Current Source Inverters.
Single-phase Current Source Inverter.
Application.
Examples.
References.
 Introduction
Inverters are used for conversion of dc power into ac power of
variable voltage and frequency.
The ac output voltage of a power electronic inverter is usually
non-sinusoidal and hence has a high harmonic content. These
harmonics can be eliminated by means of appropriate filters,
but the cost of the inverter increases with the sophistication
demanded in the output. When the output frequency of the
inverter varies over a wide range, the design of the filter
becomes a formidable task.
The technique of pulse width modulation (PWM) is beneficial
for reducing harmonics and obtaining an output which is very
nearly equal to the fundamental component of the desired
output.
:Classification of Inverters
Inverters can be classified as
(a) voltage source inverters (VSIs),
(b) current source inverters (CSIs),
(c) load commutated inverters (LCIs). Pulse width modulated
inverters form a subclassification under VSIs.
The load current of a VSI depends upon the load impedance
whereas the load voltage is independent of the load. In
contrast with this, the load voltage in a CSI is governed by
the load impedance but the load current is not influenced by
the load. In an LCI the load current leads the voltage; thus,
when the current crosses zero, the load voltage has a finite
magnitude. This voltage is applied in a reverse manner
across the thyristor and turns it off provided the duration
from the current zero to the voltage zero is larger than the
turn-off time of the thyristor.
Inverter configurations Figure 1.1 gives three commonly
encountered schemes of inverters. The configurations
(Dewan&Straughen 1975) depend upon the unit in which
voltage control is incorporated. In Fig. 1.1(a) the
uncontrolled rectifier gives a constant voltage output.
The LC filter in the dc link smooths the dc voltage; the
voltage control function is also incorporated in the inverter.
In Fig. 1.1(b) the controlled rectifier provides a variable dc
link voltage. In Fig. 1.1(c) the dc chopper gives an output
with a wide range of variation for conversion by the inverter.
The inverter is sometimes termed as an adjustable
frequency ac voltage source because its output frequency
depends on the switching rate of the semiconductor
devices.
Fig. 1.1 Different configurations of three-phase inverters. Voltage control
feature in the (a) inverter proper, (b) controlled bridge rectifier,
and (c) dc chopper
 :Single-phase, Parallel Capacitor Inverter
Figure 1.2(a) shows a single-phase, parallel capacitor inverter, which is the
simplest among single-phase VSIs. The thyristors Th1 and Th2 are
alternately turned on; the turning on of Th1 turns off Th2, and similarly the
firing of Th2 helps in the commutation of Th1. When Th1 is turned on,
current flows from N to A in the primary, and correspondingly, the
secondary circuit current flows in a clockwise direction. Similarly when the
primary current flows from N to B upon firing of Th2, the direction of the
secondary current becomes anticlockwise. The net effect is that the load
connected in the secondary circuit gets an alternating
current. The firing circuitry has been excluded from the figure for the sake
of simplicity.
Assuming Th1 to be fired initially, current will flow in the primary and
secondary windings as explained above. The capacitor C gets charged to a
voltage of magnitude 2E due to autotransformer action. If Th2 is fired at
this stage, the capacitor voltage is applied in a reverse manner across Th1
and it turns off.
Fig. 1.2 Single-phase, parallel capacitor inverter: (a) circuit diagram,
(b) equivalent circuit
Similar operations take place when Th2 is initially conducting
and Th1 is fired subsequently. The elements L and C have to be
properly designed to ensure successful turn-off of the thyristors.
For simplicity of analysis and design, the load is taken to be
purely resistive; Fig. 1.2(b), which is a simpler equivalent of Fig.
1.2(a) after referring all quantities to the primary, is taken up for
discussion.
The equivalent load resistance Rld referred to the primary
becomes
Re = Rld
 The equivalent capacitance Ce referred to the primary
becomes equal to 4C as per the following equalities:

Re and capacitance Ce now form a parallel RC combination in the

equivalent
circuit. The inductance L of Fig. 1.2(a) remains unaltered because of its
connection in the primary circuit. The analysis aims at deriving expressions
for the L and C elements which can be used in their design. The expression
for C
 can then be written as

The operation of the single-phase, parallel capacitor inverter circuit

of Fig. 1.2(b) is based on the assumption that the steady-state
voltage across each of the inductors L/2 as well as the steady-state
current through the capacitance Ce are zero. The sequence of
operations is described here. The operation of the circuit
given in Fig. 1.2(b) can be divided into three intervals: A, B, and A, as
shown in Fig. 1.3. Interval A As shown in Fig. 1.4(a), the thyristor
pair Th1, Th2 is assumed to be the conducting pair. Upon attaining
steady state (SS), a current of ISS (= E/Re) amperes flows through
the load resistance. Simultaneously, Ce is charged to the voltage
VcSS (= E) volts with the X-plate having positive polarity. The firing of
the thyristor pair Th3, Th4 marks the end of this interval.
Interval B The second thyristor pair is fired at the start of this
interval; this moment is taken as the initial time (t = 0). The
capacitor voltage is then applied in a reverse manner across Th1
and Th2 causing the devices to turn off. Also, the current through
the inductors gets diverted through the thyristors Th3 and Th4 as
illustrated in Fig. 1.4(b). As the capacitor current now flows from
left to right, it starts getting charged in the reverse direction, with
the Y -plate having positive polarity. Its voltage changes from the
initial value +E to the final steady-state value −E, the time for
reversal depending on the circuit elements L, Ce, and Re. Since Th1
and Th2 remain in parallel with Ce throughout this interval, they
initially get reverse biased, but in the new steady state they
.get forward biased to the voltageE
Fig. 1.3 Waveforms of a single-phase, parallel capacitor inverter
Fig. 1.4 Circuit conditions for the inverter of Fig. 1.2(b): (a) Th1, Th2 on,
(b) Th3, Th4 on
The capacitor current, which is transient in nature, initially attains a
negative maximum and then slowly decays down to zero in an oscillatory
manner due to the presence of the inductorL. The peak value of this
current depends on the circuit elements. For successful commutation of
Th1, the circuit time tc for which negative voltage is impressed across it
should be greater than its turn-off time; this is true for Th2 also. The
application of triggering signals iG1, iG2, respectively, to the thyristor pair
.Th1, Th2 marks the end of this interval
Interval A At time T/2, Th1 and Th2 are fired. The capacitor voltage vc is
now applied in a reverse manner across the conducting thyristors Th3, Th4
and they turn off. The capacitor now charges towards E volts and vTh1 and
vTh2 drop down to the conducting value. The current transient across the
capacitor Ce attains a peak value in the positive direction and gradually
decays to zero. The waveform of the current in the load resistance Re will
be an alternating one with its steady-state magnitude equal to E/R
amperes. It is assumed to be positive when the thyristor pair Th1, Th2
conducts and attains a negative direction when the other pair conducts.
The presence of the inductance in the circuit causes a slight overshoot in
.the load current waveform
Voltage Source Inverters
The source for this type of inverter is usually a battery; it can
be a controlled or an uncontrolled rectifier. The single-phase,
parallel capacitor inverter discussed earlier can be
categorized as a single-phase VSI because the output is single-
phase ac voltage. Figure 1.6 shows the half-bridge and full-
bridge types of single-phase VSIs in which the inductor and
capacitor are dispensed with and each thyristor is shunted by
a diode. The half-bridge inverter has only two thyristors which
are controlled so as to connect point A of the load to the
positive bus (through Th1) for one half-cycle and to the
negative bus (through Th2) for the other.
Such an operation provides a squarewave of amplitudeE/2 for
the load voltage as shown in Fig. 1.7(a). On the other hand, in
the full-bridge inverter, Th1, Th2
Fig. 1.6 Voltage source inverters: (a) half-bridge circuit, (b) full-bridge circuit
conduct the positive half-cycle of the output voltage waveform and Th3, Th4
conduct the other half-cycle. The circuit operation can be understood as
follows. The load terminal R is considered to be connected to the positive
terminal of the upper battery in the first positive half-cycle, making the
voltage vRO equal to +E/2. Also, the load terminal S is assumed to be
connected to the negative terminal of the lower battery, making vSO equal
to −E/2. This situation reverses in the negative half-cycle. As shown in Fig.
1.7(b), the load voltage vRS becomes
vRS = vRO − vSO = +E during the positive half-cycle and −E during the other
half-cycle. Thus the load voltage is a square wave of amplitude E. It is
evident that the output voltage contains harmonics; the fundamental
harmonic has the same frequency as that of the square wave output.
The load current waveform for this single-phase, full-bridge VSI depends on
the type of the load. Whereas it is a scaled-down replica of the voltage
waveform for a resistive load, it lags the fundamental component of the
load voltage for an inductive load. The lagging angle in the latter case
depends on the L/R ratio of the load [Fig. 1.7(c)]. It rises exponentially like
the current in a series RL circuit which is initially connected to a battery for a
small duration, and then falls when this battery is shorted for another
interval. For a small duration after the voltage
Fig. 1.7 Waveforms of the (a) half-bridge inverter load voltage, (b) full-bridge inverter
load voltage, and (c) load current in one phase of the full-bridge inverter
waveform changes polarity, the instantaneous current and voltage have
opposite signs, making the power negative. This is because the inductive
energy of the load, which increases when the power is positive, is fed back
to the dc source through the feedback diodes during the negative power
condition. Figure 1.7(c) also shows that when Th1 and Th2 are turned on
at 0◦, the load current is negative from 0 to A and the load voltage is
positive. Hence, the power is negative and fed back through the diodesD1
andD2 to the source. Similarly when Th1 and Th2 are turned off and Th3
and Th4 are turned on at T/2, the load current is positive in the interval B
to C but the load voltage is negative. Thus the power is negative and is fed
back to the source throughD3 andD4. The conducting diodesD1 andD2
also
serve the purpose of applying a reverse bias, respectively, across Th1 and
Th2 in the interval O to A, thus preventing them from turning on even
though their firing signals are present. Similarly after half a cycle, the diode
pair D3, D4 reverse biases the thyristor pair Th3, Th4. In view of the fact
that the zero crossings of the current waveform may occur anywhere in
the half-cycle depending on the L/R ratio of the load impedance, the
triggering signals of the thyristor pairs should be rectangular pulses with
sufficient duration.
Pulse Width Modulated VSIs
Pulse width modulated (PWM) VSIs are widely used because of the
advantages highlighted in the previous section. This section gives a detailed
treatment of two types of PWM waveforms that have been used in industry,
namely, the square and sinusoidal ones. Generation as well as other
operational features of both the single- as well as three-phase versions of
both types are discussed at length.

Single Pulse Width Modulated Inverters

The circuit of a single-phase bridge inverter is shown in next Fig. 1. 8(a). The
waveforms of the potentials vRO and vSO, respectively, of the load terminals
R and S with respect to the centre tap O of the battery are shown in Fig. 1.
8(b) along with the waveform of vRS (= vRO − vSO). Such an output is
obtained when the device pairs Th1, Th4 and Th2, Th3 conduct alternately
for half-cycles, that is, for 180◦. The waveform of vSO lags that of vRO by an
angle β = 180◦. With these conditions the output voltage waveform will have
a square shape with amplitude E.
Figs 1.8 (a), (b), and (c)
Figure 1. 8(c) shows the waveforms vRO, vSO, and vRS with the angle β =
60◦. The resulting load voltage vRS consists of rectangular pulses of 60◦
duration both in the positive and negative half-cycles. Further, there are
zero voltage intervals
Fig. 1. 8 Single-phase PWM inverter: (a) circuit diagram; waveforms with
(b) β = 180◦, (c) β = 60◦, and (d) β = 120◦
of 120◦ duration in each half-cycle. The waveform of vRS which is obtained
with β = 120◦ consists of pulses of 120◦ duration in both positive and negative
half-cycles with zero voltage durations of 60◦ in between. These output waveforms
in Figs 1. 8(c) and (d) are called quasi-square waveforms. Such intervals occur
when the thyristor pairs Th1, Th3 and Th2, Th4 are connected, respectively, to the
positive and negative terminals of the battery. These terminals are called positive
and negative buses.

The modified operation of the single-phase bridge as detailed above

demonstrates the technique of PWM, which consists of varying the widths of the
output pulses in the positive and negative half-cycles from 0◦ to 180◦ by varying
the angle of lag (β) from 0◦ to 180◦. The magnitude of the fundamental component
of the output voltage, as computed from a Fourier analysis of the load waveform,
is also varied from zero to a maximum. This approach is beneficial in eliminating
any specified harmonics of the output voltage waveform. For example, if β is set
at 60◦, it can be shown that the third harmonic and its multiples will be absent
from the output voltage. Single pulse width modulation has the disadvantage that
the harmonic content becomes excessive when the output pulses are very narrow.
Load current waveforms
The load current waveform of the inverter circuit of Fig. 1. 8(a) depends on (i) the
L/R ratio of the load and (ii) the duration of the load voltage waveform. If the load is
purely resistive, the current waveform will be a replica of the load voltage
waveform. In Figs 1. 9(a)–(c) the load current waveforms with inductive load for the
three cases considered above are shown as dashed curves; the devices that conduct
in the different intervals are also shown in the figures. Two unique features of
thesewaveforms are (i) they are non-sinusoidal and hence contain harmonics and
(ii) they may have zero current intervals.
Fig. 1. 9 Current waveforms for the inverter of Fig. 1.18(a) with (a) β = 180◦,
(b) β = 60◦, (c) β = 120◦
Current Source Inverters
The VSIs obtain their ac supply from a dc voltage source which consists of
either a diode bridge rectifier followed by a dc chopper and an LC filter or
a fully controlled rectifier followed by a filter. The output voltage of a VSI is
independent of the load impedance. In contrast to this, for a current
source inverter (CSI) the shape of the output voltage depends on the load
whereas the output current is independent of load. The source for a CSI
consists of a phase-controlled rectifier which can be made to operate as a
current source by means of a large series inductor at its output and a
current regulating loop. A CSI has the following merits: (a) reversal
of motor current, which is needed for regenerative braking, is possible
without any additional components whereas these are essential in a VSI,
(b) the large filter inductor prevents the short-circuiting of the output
terminals when there is a commutation failure, (c) CSIs which are used in
drives of medium or high power levels employ relatively less costly
converter grade thyristors. CSIs are not without drawbacks and these will
be dealt with later. A detailed description of single-phase and three-phase
CSIs follows.
Single-phase Current Source Inverter
Figure 1.10(a) shows a single-phase autosequentially commutated
inverter (ASCI) which consists of a constant current source rigged up with
a dc supply. By alternate firing of the thyristor pairs Th1, Th4 and Th2,
Th3 an alternating current wave of amplitude Id is obtained at the load.
The frequency of the output current is determined by the triggering
frequency of the thyristor pairs. The sequence of operation for this circuit
can be split up into four intervals as follows.
Interval 1 It is assumed that the thyristors Th1 and Th4 are already
conducting the load current Ild = Idc which flows in the circuit consisting
of the positive terminal of the supply, smoothing inductor L, Th1, D1, the
load, D4, Th4, and the negative terminal of the supply. The commutating
capacitors C1 and C2 are assumed to be charged to +E1 volts during the
previous half-cycle, with the X1- and X2-plate attaining positive polarity.
The voltage E1 will be greater than the load voltage Rild. The triggering of
the other thyristor pair marks the end of this interval.
Interval 2 At time t1 the thyristors Th2 and Th3 are triggered into conduction,
enabling the capacitors C1 and C2 to apply a reverse voltage, respectively, across
Th1 and Th4 and turn them off. Consequently the voltages across the capacitors
decay down. At t2 these capacitor voltages attain the load voltage RIld, and the
diodes D3 and D2 start conduction. This marks the end of interval 2. Interval 3
During this interval, which starts at t2, the thyristors Th2 and Th3
as well as all the four diodes connect the load in parallel with the commutating
capacitors. The smoothing inductor, capacitors C1 and C2, and the load resistance
and inductance along with the current source form an RLC circuit which is driven
by the current source.Acurrent oscillation sets in, and the load current, whichwas
originally equal to Ild, becomes zero, then reverses and attains the value −Ild. At t3
the diodes D1 and D4 get reverse biased, terminating the commutation process.
Interval 4 The load current now flows through Th3, D3, the load (in a reverse
direction), D2, and Th2. The capacitor voltage attains the value −E1 (with X1
and X2 attaining negative polarity) and remains at this value till the commutation
of Th2 and Th3.
If Th1 and Th4 are now triggered, Th2 and Th3 turn off and the load current
and voltage reverse again, thus becoming positive. The cycle repeats.
When Th2 and Th3 are turned on at t1 the input voltage (vin) gets reversed
whereas the input current remains constant at the positive value of Ild. The power
delivered to the load is −vinIld. The negative sign indicates that the inductive
energy of the load flows back to the dc source. After some time (interval 3) the
load becomes ready to conduct current in the reverse direction.
Fig. 1.10 Single-phase autosequentially commutated current source bridge
inverter: (a) circuit diagram, (b) waveforms
 APPLICATION

1 - DC Power source utilization

2 - Uninterruptible power supplies
3- Induction heating
4 -HVDC power transmission
5 - Variable-frequency drives
6 -Electric vehicle drives
7 -The general case
 USES OF INVERTER

*DC power source utilization applications include use

of DC in motor vehicles and from batteries to power
AC loads and use of energy from solar cells to power
AC loads.
 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES

*An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses

batteries and an inverter to supply AC power when
main power is not available.
When main power is restored, a rectifier is used to
supply DC power to recharge the batteries.
 Examples
The single-phase, half-bridge inverter of Fig. 1.6(a) supplies a resistive load of
10 . If the supply voltage E = 200 V, determine the (a) RMS output voltage at
the fundamental frequency, (b) output power, (c) half-cycle average, RMS, and
peak currents of each thyristor, (d) input power factor, and (e) distortion factor.
Solution
The output waveform is shown in Fig. 1.7(a). Because of the odd symmetry of the
output voltage waveform, the Fourier series for the instantaneous output voltage
is obtained as
The waveforms of currents through the thyristors are given in Fig. 1.34.
The half-cycle average current through Th1 is

Fig. 5.34
For the inverter of Example 1, repeat the above calculations by considering an
inductive reactance of 8 at the load in addition to the resistance.
Solution
The waveform of the fundamental load current is given in Fig. 1.35.
V 1 = 90 (same as in Example 1). For the lagging power factor load, the Fourier
series for the instantaneous load current is given as

Fig. 5.35
 References
[1] Power Electronics Devices, Circuits and Industrial Applications

V. R. MOORTHI Oxford University Press .

[2] POWER ELECTRONICS HANDBOOK DEVICES,

CIRCUITS, AND APPLICATIONS Third Edition Edited by
Muhammad H. Rashid, Ph.D. University of West Florida .
THANK
YOU