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2
 a text - spoken or written
discourse
discourse - that is functioning for
some purpose within
some context

aa discourse
discourse (text)
(text) usually
usually
consists of
consists of aa number
number of
of sentences.
sentences.

3
t e x t
s e n t e n c e s
c l a u s e s
phrases
words
sounds
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 the linguistic “cement” we use to
the linguistic “cement” we use to
connect clauses and sentences
connect clauses and sentences
in order
in order to
to make
make our
our text
text cohesive
cohesive

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 cohesive devices

referring substitution -
expressions, replacing words
e.g. pronouns with substitutes -
one, do, so, not
conjunction
s ellipsis -
leaving words
lexis - using words
out
that are related -
synonyms, adjacency pairs6
antonyms, co-
 categories of referring
expressions
personal pronouns e.g. he, she, it, they, them etc;

demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, those;

•definite article the

temporal expressions now, then

locative adverbs here, there

comparatives same, another, similar, different 7etc

 referring expressions
whereabouts is the meaning to which a
referring expression refers? It could
be:
earlier in the text, e.g.

The doctor crossed the road. He was in a hurry.

i on
s
r es
p
g ex
r in
er anaphoric reference
f
re
8
 referring expressions
The meaning to which a referring expression
refers could be later in the text, e.g.

This is what I would like: a bowl of soup

n
sio
res
exp
i ng

cataphoric reference
err
ref

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 referring expressions
The meaning referred to could be
outside the text, e.g.
I think I’m
getting
sunburnt.
The sun is
very hot
today

exophoric reference
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 referring expressions
What would
you like to eat?

I’ll have a piece

of that cheese!

exophoric reference
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 summary of types of
referring expressions
referring expressions
(reference)

text external text internal

(exophoric) (endophoric)

referring referring
backwards forward
(anaphoric) (cataphoric)
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 referring expressions in text
Lilly’s grandmother told her a story.

‘Once upon a time,’ she said, ‘the ocean was filled with
whales. They were as big as the hills. They were as
peaceful as the moon. They were the most
wondrous creatures you could ever imagine.’

Lilly climbed on her grandmother’s lap. ‘I used to sit

at the end of the jetty and listen for whales,’ said
Lilly’s grandmother. ‘Sometimes I’d sit there all day
and all night. Then all of a sudden I’d see them
coming from miles away. They moved through the
water as if they were dancing.’ 13
 substitution
There are a small number of words
which we can use as substitutes for
other words, phrases or even clauses.
We use them to avoid repeating a
word.
so

one do

not 14
 substitution
substitute for a word = one
Let’s have one
while we’re
Don’t you think we waiting.
could have a
sandwich each?

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 substitution
substitute for phrases and clauses = not, do, so

Are you
coming?
I don’t
think so.

Why not?

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 ellipsis
This cohesive device is like substitution
but what is substituted is Ø.

Yes. I suppose
The boy should
he should
be back by now
( )

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 related words
in any text, there are words that are
related in some way, e.g.

tall lanky synonymy

tall short antonymy

sandwich food hyponymy

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 a word about hyponymy

superordinate food

fruit vegetables meat grain

apples bananas root leaf animal fish rice wheat

carrot yam
co-hyponyms

hyponymy is the “kind of” relation, e.g. apples are a kind of fruit
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 lexical relations in text
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins
are softened with alkali and ^^ removed with
steam. Next, they are sliced into square-
sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but
will become hard if they are over-cooked. The
cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor
belt which passes them through a tank of hot
water or a dilute solution of phosphate or
citrate salt. This helps to prevent them
discolouring.
synonymy; antonymy; hyponymy; repetition20
potatoes strips cook softened steam
skins strips over- hard water
cooked
(skins) strips blanched
they strips
they
strips cut
them sliced
them

meronymy repetition synonymy antonymy hypon

part/whole similarity opposite kind
21 of
 cohesive conjunctions
• used to link sentences;
• can occur anywhere in a sentence –
beginning, middle or end, e.g.

Don’t go
so fast!

OK. We’ll be
late though

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 conjunctive meanings
conjunctions express different kinds of
meaning, e.g.
time - after, before, previously etc;

cause - so, consequently, therefore, as a result etc

addition – moreover, and, etc

contrast – but, however, etc

sequence – first, then, next etc

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 adjacency pairs
question – answer;
invitation – response;
inform – acknowledge;
greeting - response
etc
How are
you? I’m well.
How are
you?

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 adjacency pairs
these provide cohesion in spoken language;
a serious break in cohesion occurs if the
second part of the pair is not given, e.g.
if an answer to a question is not provided.

Do you like
cheese?

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 coherence
patterns of text organisation
• general – particular
• chronological
• simple – complex
• external – internal
• problem – solution
• question – answer
• cause – effect
• claim – counter claim 26
In these jokes, watch for the confusion between
the speakers
This confusion arises because one makes the
wrong assumption about what the other is
referring to.
Moral: Make sure your cohesive links are clear

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• Passenger: I have to be in Davao at 5:45
on Sunday evening. How long
does it take to fly there?

• Airline Clerk: Just a minute.

• Passenger: Thanks very much.

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• A: Time flies. You can’t.

• B: Why not?

• A: They fly too fast.

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• Teacher: Which month usually has 28
days?

• Student: All of them

• (The teacher left out ‘only’)

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• Do you like cleaning ladies?

• I don’t know.
• I’ve never cleaned one.

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 text i)
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins
are softened with alkali and removed with
steam. Next, they are sliced into square-
sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but
will become hard if they are over-cooked. The
cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor
belt which passes them through a tank of hot
water or a dilute solution of phosphate or
citrate salt. This helps to prevent them
discolouring.
referring expressions;
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 text i)
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins
are softened with alkali and [the skins are]
removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into
square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook
faster but [they] will become hard if they are
over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a
wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them
through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution
of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to
prevent them discolouring.
[ellipsis]; related words
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 text i)
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins
are softened with alkali and removed with
steam. Next, they are sliced into square-
sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but
will become hard if they are over-cooked. The
cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor
belt which passes them through a tank of hot
water or a dilute solution of phosphate or
citrate salt. This helps to prevent them
discolouring.
conjunctions 34
 text i) without using referring
expressions and ellipsis
After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened
with alkali and the skins are removed with steam. Next, the
potatoes are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips
will be cooked faster but thin strips will become hard if thin
strips are overcooked. The cut strips are blanched on a
wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes the cut strips
through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of
phosphate or citrate salt. Passing the cut strips through a
tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or
citrate salt helps to prevent the cut strips discolouring.
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 text ii)
The government has taken a practical, hands-on
approach to an issue about which something had
to be done, given the feedback from the parents
of children who are suffering because of their
problems with the subject. At the same time, it
is trying to enhance the learning of the language
among top students.
The move is a courageous one because the issue
is fraught with sensitivities.
conjunctions lexical relation substitution
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exophoric reference cataphoric reference anaphoric reference