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Quantitative Research: Dr. Eunice B. Custodio Philippines
Quantitative Research: Dr. Eunice B. Custodio Philippines
Research
By:
Philippines
Concepts of Research
– Research is a term used liberally for any
kind of investigation that is intended to
uncover interesting or new facts.
– As with all activities,the rigour with which
this activity is carried out will be reflected in
the quality of the results (Nicholas
Walliman, 2011).
– Researchis the labor of finding knowledge and
information, either where it was hidden, hard to
reach, or unknown.
– It is exhaustive and is used to prove or disprove a
statement, a systematic investigation to establish facts
and to test phenomena (any observable occurrence).
– Research is conducted without any practical end in
mind, although it may have unexpected results
pointing to practical applications.
Operation Deep Scope's submersible vessel
Deep Sea Discoveries of Canada's
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– Research is a human activity based
on intellectual investigation and is
aimed at discovering, interpreting,
and revising human knowledge on
different aspects of the world.
– Research is about acquiring
knowledge and developing
understanding, collecting facts and
interpreting them to build up a
picture of the world around us, and
even within us.
Pweor of The Hmuan Mnid
– Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde
Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the
Itteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is
taht the frist and Isat Itteer be at the rghit pclae.
The rset can be a total mses and you can sitll
raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the
huamn mnid deos not raed ervey Iteter by istlef,
but the wrod as a wlohe.
– Research can use the scientific method; a subset
of invention; an empirical research.
– Research was considered as an activity that
preceded applied research, which in turn
preceded development into practical
applications.
CHARACTERISTICS
OF RESEARCH
1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the
researcher/s himself.
2. It must be within the interest of the researcher/s.
3. It must be with the competence of the researcher/s to
tackle or discuss.
4. It must be within the ability of the researcher/s to finance.
5. It is researchable and manageable.
CHARACTERISTICS
OF RESEARCH
6. It must specificand measurable.The variable is
measurable when there is an instrument (standardized
questionnaire) that maybe used in order to test it.
7. Quantifiable. If no available instrument, then the next
question is, are you willing to create one?If the
variable is non-quantifiable, better not to include it in
your research. Example of unquantifiable variable:
creativity (can we measure this? Is there a test that can
be used to quantify this?)
CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESEARCH
8. Presents a conjecture (assumed relationship) between or
among phenomena (ex. Length of Service, and Teaching
Performance).
9. Does not present moral and ethical issues (because this is
very subjective, & will not apply to everyone).
HOW TO SELECT A
RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. Prevention of unnecessary duplication. The problem must
not have been investigated before. If the problem is
investigated before, it may be the subject of another study
but with different assumptions, different methods, or
different ways of analyzing data.
2. Practical value of the problem. The result of the research
study should use to improve practices and concepts. It can
use of those who may want to make use it.
3. Researcher’s interest in the problem. The researcher
should select a problem not because of research
popularity or someone wants him to investigate it but
because it appeals to his interest.
4. Availability of data on the problem. A fruitful results
yield if data on the problem is available.
5. Special qualification of the researcher to tackle the
problem. The researcher whose field is medicine is
eminently qualified to investigate problems in medicine;
we cannot say that he is qualified to undertake research in
other field.
6. Time required to investigate the problem. The
research should be conducted within a reasonable period
of time.
7. Cost of investigating the problem. Conducting a
research project needs the expenditure of money such as
questionnaires, tools, xerox, etc. The cost should be
reasonable meaning it is within the means of the
researcher.
The Selection of a Research Approach
Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research that
span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection, analysis, and interpretation.
This plan involves several decisions, and they need not be taken in
the order in which they make sense as well as the order of their
presentation. The overall decision involves which approach should
be used to study a topic. Informing this decision should be the
philosophical assumptions the researcher brings to the study;
procedures of inquiry (called research designs); and specific
research methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
The Selection of a Research Approach
– Pinatubo eruption
– Japanese Regime
2. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses or
answer questions regarding the subjects of the study. In
contrast with the qualitative approach, the data are numerical.
The data are typically collected through a questionnaire,
an interview, or through observation.
In descriptive research, the researcher/investigator reports
the numerical results for one or more variables on the
subjects of the study.
What is Descriptive Research?
Descriptive research seeks to depict what already exists in a
group or population. An example of this type of research would
be an opinion poll to determine which Presidential candidate
people plan to vote for in the next election.
Descriptive studies do not seek to measure the effect of a
variable; they seek only to describe.
Gay (1998) emphasizes that descriptive research is a method of
investigation involves collection of data in order to test hypothesis
or to answer questions concerning the current status of the study.
Fanollera (1993) stated that descriptive method involves
descriptive recording analysis and interpretation of conditions that
concurrently exists.
Leedy (1993), descriptive statistics describes the shape of the
data. Frequency and distribution are forms of descriptive statistics
that can provide opportunities for insight.
The steps in conducting descriptive
research are the following:
A p-value of less than .05 indicates that the possibility that the results
are due merely to chance is less than 5%.
Occasionally, smaller p-values are seen such as:
p< .01.
There are a number of different means of measuring statistical
significance. The type of statistical test used depends largely upon the type
of research design that was used.
Here is an Example of an
Experiment
Pretest Treatment Posttest
O1 XE O2
O1 XC O2
Where:
E - stands for the experimental group (e.g., new teaching
approach)
C - stands for the control or comparison group (e.g., the
old or standard teaching approach)
Because the best way to make the two groups similar in the
above research design is to randomly assign the participants to
the experimental and control groups, let’s assume that we
have a convenience sample of 50 people and that we randomly
assign them to the two groups in our experiment.
First, we made our groups approximately the same at the
start of the study by using random assignment (i.e., the
groups are “equated”).
You pretest the participants to see how much they know.
Next, you manipulate the independent variable by using the
new teaching approach with the experimental group and
using the old teaching approach for the control group.
Now (after the manipulation) you measure the
participants’ knowledge to see how much they know after
having participated in our experiment. Let’s say that the
people in the experimental group show more knowledge
improvement than those in the control group. What would you
conclude?
In this case, we can conclude that there is a causal relationship
between the IV, teaching method, and the DV,knowledge, and
specifically we can conclude that the new teaching approach is
better than the old teaching approach.
let’s say that in the above experiment we could not use random
assignment to equate our groups. Let’s say that, instead, we had our
best teacher (Mr. Juan Dela Cruz) use the new teaching approach
with her students in her 5period class and we had a newer and less
experienced teacher (Ms. Juana Makabayan) use the old teaching
approach with his 5th period class. Let’s again say that the
experimental group did better than the control group. Do you see
any problems with claiming that the reason for the difference
between the two groups is because of the teaching method?
The problem is that there are alternative explanations. First,
perhaps the difference is because Mr.Dela Cruz is the better
teacher. Second, perhaps Ms. Makabayan had the smarter
students (remember the students were not randomly assignment
to the two groups; instead, we used two intact classrooms).
In particular, it is very possible that the difference we saw
between the two groups was due to variables other than the IV.
In particular, the difference might have been due to the teacher
or to the IQ levels of the groups. We have a special name for
these kinds of variables. They are called extraneous variable.
It is important to remember the definition of an extraneous
variable because they can destroy the integrity of a research study
that claims to show a cause and effect relationship. An extraneous
variable is a variable that may compete with the independent
variable in explaining the outcome.
If you are ever interested in identifying cause and effect
relationships you must always determine whether there are any
extraneous variables you need to worry about. If an extraneous
variable really is the reason for an outcome (rather than the IV)
then we sometimes like to call it a confounding variable because
it has confused or confounded the relationship we are interested in.
4. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Attempts to determine whether and to what degree, a
relationship exists between two or more quantifiable (numerical)
variables. However, it is important to remember that just because
there is a significant relationship between two variables, it does not
follow that one variable causes the other.
When two variables are correlated you can use the relationship
to predict the value on one variable for a subject if you know that
subject’s value on the other variable. Correlation implies prediction
but not causation. The investigator frequently uses the correlation
coefficient to report the results of correlational research.
The correlation is a way to measure how associated or
related two variables are. The researcher looks at things that
already exist and determines if and in what way those things are
related to each other. The purpose of doing correlations is to
allow us to make a prediction about one variable based on what
we know about another variable.
For example, there is a correlation between income and
education. We find that people with higher income have more
years of education. You can also phrase it that people with more
years of education have higher income. When we know there is
a correlation between two variables, we can make a prediction.
If we know a group’s income, we can predict their years of
education.
– CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
– Refers to the systematic investigation or statistical study of relationships among two
or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effects
– It seeks to establish a relation/association/correlation between two or more variables
that do not readily lend themselves to experimental manipulaltion
– For example, to test the hypothesis “Listening to music lowers blood pressure levels”
– There are two ways of conducting this research:
– EXPERIMENTAL – group samles and make one group listen to music and then compare the
bp levels
– SURVEY – ask people how they feel? How often they listen? and them compare
B. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research primarily involves the analysis
of words.Verbatim quotes are used in reports to
illustrate points and this brings the subject to life for the
reader. The researcher must be good with words.
It allows an individual to explore perceptions,
attitudes and motivations and also to understand how
they are formed. It provides depth of information which
can be used in its own right or to determine what
attributes will subsequently be measured in quantitative
studies.
Relies heavily on the skills of the moderator and is
inevitably subjective and samples are small.
Techniques include group discussions as well as
workshop sessions, paired interviews, individual in-depth
interviews and mystery shopping (ex. where the researcher
plays the role of a potential student, in order to replicate the
overall experience).
Gay (1998) emphasizes that descriptive research is a method of
investigation involves collection of data in order to test hypothesis
or to answer questions concerning the current status of the study.
Fanollera (1993) stated that descriptive method involves
descriptive recording analysis and interpretation of conditions that
concurrently exists.
Leedy (1993), descriptive statistics describes the shape of the
data. Frequency and distribution are forms of descriptive statistics
that can provide opportunities for insight.
B. Qualitative Research Approach