Pertemuan ke-2

Elektronika Analog I

Dr. Eng. Mokh. Sholihul Hadi, S.T., M. Eng.

 Schedule for Today
• Basic diode concepts
• Diode model
• Diode operating point
• Diode circuit: half-wave rectifier, full-wave
rectifier
Basic Diode Concepts
Intrinsic Semiconductors
* Energy Diagrams – Insulator, Semiconductor, and Conductor
the energy diagram for the three types of solids

5
 10. Diodes – Basic Diode Concepts
10.1.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors
* Intrinsic (pure) Si Semiconductor:
Thermal Excitation, Electron-Hole Pair, Recombination, and Equilibrium

When equilibrium between

excitation and recombination
is reached :
electron density  hole density
ni  pi  1.5  10 10 cm -3
for intrinsic Si crystal at 300 K
( Note : Si crystal atom density
is ~ 5  10 22 cm -3 )

6
Intrinsic Semiconductors
*Apply a voltage across
a piece of Si:
electron current
and hole current

7
 What Are Diodes Made Out Of?

• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most Si Si Si

common single elements that are used to make Diodes. +4 +4 +4

A compound that is commonly used is Gallium

Arsenide (GaAs), especially in the case of LEDs Si Si Si
because of it’s large bandgap. +4 +4 +4

• Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements,

meaning they have 4 valence electrons. Their Si Si Si
structure allows them to grow in a shape called the +4 +4 +4

diamond lattice.
• Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group
5 element. When put together as a compound, GaAs
creates a zincblend lattice structure.
• In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, each
atom shares its valence electrons with its four closest
neighbors. This sharing of electrons is what ultimately
allows diodes to be build. When dopants from groups
3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to Si, Ge or GaAs it
changes the properties of the material so we are able to
make the P- and N-type materials that become the
diode.
The diagram above shows the
2D structure of the Si crystal.
The light green lines represent
the electronic bonds made
when the valence electrons are
shared. Each Si atom shares
one electron with each of its
four closest neighbors so that
its valence band will have a full
8 electrons.
N- and P- Type Semiconductors
* Doping: adding of impurities (i.e., dopants) to the intrinsic semi-
conductor material.
* N-type: adding Group V dopant (or donor) such as As, P, Sb,…

n  p  constant for a semiconductor

For Si at 300K

n  p  n i2  p i2  1.5 1010  2

In n - type material
n  N d the donor conceration
n  N d  n i , p  p i
We call
electron the major charge carrier
hole the minor charge carrier

9
N- and P- Type Semiconductors
* Doping: adding of impurities (i.e., dopants) to the intrinsic semi-
conductor material.
* P-type: adding Group III dopant (or acceptor) such as Al, B, Ga,…

n  p  constant for a semiconductor

For Si at 300K
2
i
2
i 
n  p  n  p  1.5  10 
10 2

In p - type material
p  N a the acceptor conceration
p  N a  p i , n  n i
We call
hole the major charge carrier
electron the minor charge carrier

10
The PN-Junction
* The interface in-between p-type and n-type material is called a
pn-junction.
The barrier potential VB  0.6  0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge
at 300K : as T  ,V B  .

11
Biasing the PN-Junction
* There is no movement of charge
through a pn-junction at
equilibrium.
* The pn-junction form a diode which
allows current in only one
direction and prevent the current
in the other direction as
determined by the bias.

12
Biasing the PN-Junction
*Forward Bias: dc voltage positive terminal connected to the p region and
negative to the n region. It is the condition that permits current
through the pn-junction of a diode.

13
Biasing the PN-Junction
*Forward Bias: dc voltage positive terminal connected to the p region and
negative to the n region. It is the condition that permits current
through the pn-junction of a diode.

14
Biasing the PN-Junction
*Forward Bias:

15
*Reverse Bias: dc voltage negative terminal connected to the p region
and positive to the n region. Depletion region widens until its
potential difference equals the bias voltage, majority-carrier current
ceases.

16
*Reverse Bias:
majority-carrier current ceases.
* However, there is still a very
small current produced by
minority carriers.

17
Biasing the PN-Junction
* Reverse Breakdown: As reverse voltage reach certain value,
avalanche occurs and generates large current.

18
 Diodes applications

1.LED – Light Emitting

Diodes
2.LD – Laser Diodes
3.Fiber optics
4.Optical switching MEMS
5.Nanotechnology
6.Solar Cells
7.Light Detection
8.Future Technologies

Green electroluminescence from a point

contact on a crystal of SiC recreates
H. J. Round's original experiment from 1907.
Light Spectrum
Light Spectrum

Red, green and blue LEDs

 LED - Light Emitting Diodes

When a light-emitting diode is

forward biased, electrons are
able to recombine with holes
within the device, releasing
energy in the form of photons.

This effect is called

electroluminescence and the
color of the light (corresponding
to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of
the semiconductor.
Source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode
LED - Light Emitting Diodes

UV – AlGaN
Blue – GaN, InGaN
Red, green – GaP
Red, yellow – GaAsP
IR- GaAs
 LED - Colors & voltage drop

Wavelength Voltage (V) Semiconductor Material

Color (nm)
Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9 Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Red 610 < λ < 760 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Gallium arsenide phosphide
(GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Orange 590 < λ < 610 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)Gallium(III) phosphide
(GaP)
Yellow 570 < λ < 590 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide
(GaP)
Green 500 < λ < 570 1.9 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
(AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Blue 450 < λ < 500 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Zinc selenide (ZnSe), Indium gallium nitride (InGaN), Silicon carbide
(SiC) as substrate, Silicon (Si)
Violet 400 < λ < 450 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Purple multiple types 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 Dual blue/red LEDs,blue with red phosphor,or white with purple
plastic
Ultra-viol λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4 diamond (235 nm), Boron nitride (215 nm) , Aluminium nitride (AlN)
et (210 nm) Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) (AlGaInN) — (to 210 nm)
White Broad ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor  
spectrum
 Wireless telemedicine

The PillCam is a ‘swallow’

diagnostic device, taking
high-quality, high-speed
photos as it passes through
the esophagus.

PillCam transmits 14
pictures/sec. to a receiver
worn by the patient.

This enables diagnosis of

throat disease and related
ailments.

http://www.three-fives.com/latest_features/feature_articles/250205medical.html
pn-junction laser

Light
Amplification by
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation
 Diode Lasers are Small!

http://faculty.uml.edu/carmiento/Special%20Lectures/Intro%20to%20EE%20Lecture.pdf
 Radar/Laser Detectors

A radar/laser detector is a combination of a radar detector, which

senses radar in the air, and a laser detector, which looks for laser
beams directed at your car.

A laser beam is a very focused beam

of light that does not separate out
from its beam path.

Fortunately, there is a lot of dust

and fine particles in the air, which
causes the laser beam to separate
enough that the beams can be seen
by a proper detector.
 Optical Fiber Communications

What is it?
Transmission of information using light over
an optical fiber
Why use it?
–Extremely high data rate and wide
bandwidth
–Low attenuation (loss of signal strength)
–Longer distance without repeaters
–Immunity to electrical interference
–Small size and weight
–Longer life expectancy than copper or
coaxial cable
–Bandwidth can be increased by adding
wavelengths
 Information Capacities in Optical Fiber

•Each wavelength can carry a signal at 10 gigabits/sec (1010 bits/sec)

•A fiber can transport up to 64 different wavelengths
–Each wavelength can carry 10 Gb/s
–Unlike electrical signals, optical signals inside the same fiber at
different wavelengths don’t interfere with each other
•Each fiber can have an aggregate data rate of 640 Gb/s
–This is 640,000,000,000 bits per second!
•This rate translates to:
–10 million simultaneous telephone calls (64 kb/s each)
–Download the contents of the Library of Congress takes:
•84 years using a 56 kb/s modem
•0.22 seconds using the aggregate fiber rate
•These rates can go much higher!
–Researchers have developed operation of 40 Gb/s per wavelength
–A fiber cable can contain as much as a hundred fibers
Cable Size Comparison: Copper vs. Fiber

This is a standard
copper cable used for
telephone service. This
carries about 300 phone
calls

One of these fibers can

carry up to 10 million
telephone calls
Optical Switching
Where electrical and mechanical engineering meet

Route optical communication signals

without conversion to the electronic
domain using microscopic mirrors
based on MEMS technology
MEMS: Miniature Motors Nanotechnology
Small and
getting smaller
Human hair
Video 2:30 min
 Micro and nanotechnologies are revolutionizing medicine

Almost invisible' tools are being developed by

European researchers to discover diseases earlier and
to treat patients better.

The miniaturization of instruments to micro and nano

dimensions promises to make our future lives safer and
cleaner.

In the "Adonis"-project, nano-sized gold particles are

used to detect prostate cancer cells at an early stage.
Video 7:30 min
http://www.zangani.com/node/2763
 Photovoltaics

The word Photovoltaic is a combination of the Greek

word for Light and the name of the physicist
Allesandro Volta.

It identifies the direct conversion of sunlight into

energy by means of solar cells. The conversion process
is based on the photoelectric effect discovered by
Alexander Bequerel in 1839.

The photoelectric effect describes the release of

positive and negative charge carriers in a solid state
when light strikes its surface.

http://www.solarserver.de/wissen/photovoltaik-e.html
Photovoltaics
 How Does a Solar Cell Work?

Solar cells are composed of

various semiconducting materials.

Semiconductors become
electrically conductive when
supplied with light or heat.

Over 95% of all the solar cells

are composed of the Si.
 How Does a Solar Cell Work?
Photo generated current

The equivalent circuit of a solar cell

The usable voltage from solar cells depends on the semiconductor

material. In silicon it amounts to approximately 0.5 V.

Terminal voltage is only weakly dependent on light radiation, while

the current intensity increases with higher luminosity.

A 100 cm² silicon cell, for example, reaches a maximum current

intensity of approximately 2 A when radiated by 1000 W/m².
Characteristics of a Solar Cell

oThe output power of a solar cell

is temperature dependent.

oHigher cell temperatures lead

to lower output, and hence to
lower efficiency.

oEfficiency indicates how much

of the radiated quantity of light
is converted into useable
electrical energy.
Today on the order of 15-25%
Light Detectors

Optical detectors,
Chemical detectors,
Photoresistors or Light Dependent Resistors
(LDR)
Photovoltaic cells or solar cells
Photodiodes
Phototransistors
Optical detectors that are effectively
thermometers, responding to the heat by the
incoming radiation, such as pyroelectric
detectors, Golay cells, thermocouples and
thermistors,
Cryogenic detectors are sufficiently sensitive
to measure the energy of single x-ray
Charge-coupled devices (CCD),
 CCD Detectors

An image is projected by a lens on the

capacitor array causing each capacitor
to accumulate an electric charge
proportional to the light intensity at
CCD used for ultraviolet imaging
that location.
in a wire bonded package.
A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an
analog shift register that transports
electric charges through successive
capacitors, controlled by a clock signal.

CCDs are used in digital photography,

digital photogrammetry, astronomy,
sensors, electron microscopy, medical
fluoroscopy, optical and UV
spectroscopy,etc.
CCD color sensor
CCD Detectors
 Testing an LED

Never connect an LED directly to a battery or a power supply!

It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current
will pass through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe
value, for quick testing purposes a 1kΩ resistor is suitable for
most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.
Remember to connect the LED the correct way!
 Tri-color LEDs

The most popular type of tri-color LED

has a red and a green LED combined in one
package with three leads.

They are called tri-color because mixed

red and green light appears to be yellow.

The diagram shows the organization of a

tri-color LED. Note the different lengths
of the three leads.

The central lead (k) is the common

cathode for both LEDs, the outer leads (a1
and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs
allowing each one to be lit separately, or
both together to give the third color.
 Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series

to limit the current through the LED. The
resistor value, R is given by:

R = (VS - VL) / I
VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted
If the calculated value is not available, choose the nearest standard resistor value which
is greater, to limit the current. Even greater resistor value will increase the battery life
but this will make the LED less bright.

For example
If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current
I = 20mA = 0.020A,
R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350, so choose 390 (the nearest greater standard value).
 Connecting LEDs in series

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same

time, connect them in series.

This prolongs battery life by lighting several

LEDs with the same current as just one LED.

The power supply must have sufficient voltage to

provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue and
white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor.

To work out a value for the resistor you must

add up all the LED voltages and use this for V L.
 Connecting LEDs in series

Example
A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a
supply voltage of at least 3×2V + 2V = 8V,
so choose a 9V battery. Adjust the resistor R to
have current I=15 mA.
 Connecting LEDs in series

Example
A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a
supply voltage of at least 3×2V + 2V = 8V,
so choose a 9V battery. Adjust the resistor R to
have current I=15 mA.

VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages

added up).

If the supply voltage VS is 9V and the current I

must be 15mA = 0.015A,

Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 /

0.015 = 200,
so choose R = 220Ω   (the nearest standard value
which is greater).
 Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with

just one resistor shared between them is a
bad idea.

If the LEDs require slightly different

voltages only the lowest voltage LED will
light and it may be destroyed by the larger
current flowing through it.

If LEDs are in parallel each one should have

its own resistor.
 LED Displays
It is a common anode display since
all anodes are joined together and
go to the positive supply.

The cathodes are connected

individually to resistors limiting the
current through each diode to a
safe value.

LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the

most familiar pattern being the 7-segment displays for showing
numbers (digits 0-9).
 Using Varicap Diode

When the junction diode is reverse

biased, the insulating barrier widens
reducing diode capacitance.

The barrier forms the dielectric, of

variable width, of a capacitor.

The N and P type cathode and anode are the two plates of the capacitor.
In the diagram, the diode and coil form a resonant circuit.

The capacitance of the diode, and thereby the resonant frequency, is

varied by means of the potentiometer controlling the reverse voltage
across the varicap.

The capacitor prevents the coil shorting out the voltage across the
potentiometer.
 Diode Capacitance as a Funcion of VD

• Ideality factor (m) depends on junction gradient

 Nanotechnology 101

Nanotechnology is the art and

science of manipulating matter at
the nanoscale (down to 1/100,000
the width of a human hair) to create
new and unique materials and
products.

Nanotechnology has enormous

potential to change society.

An estimated global research and development investment of nearly $9

billion per year is anticipated to lead to:
 new medical treatments and tools;
more efficient energy production, storage and transmission;
better access to clean water;
more effective pollution reduction and prevention;
and stronger, lighter materials and many other uses.
 Nanotechnology 101

So what?

The nanoscale is the scale of

atoms and molecules.

At the nanoscale, scientists can

start affecting the properties of
materials directly, making them
harder or lighter or more durable.

In some cases, simply making things smaller changes their properties:

a chemical might take on a new color, or
start to conduct electricity.
nanoscale particles are more chemically reactive with more surface area
nanotubes made of carbon, can be up to thirty times stronger than steel,
yet is one sixth the weight.

http://www.nanotechproject.org/topics/nano101/introduction_to_nanotechnology/
 Nanotechnology 101

nanotubes
Dollars and Sense

In 2007, $60 billion worth of nano-enabled

products were sold.
Nanotechnology will produce an anticipated 7
million jobs in the next decade.
By 2014, $2.6 trillion in manufactured goods
will incorporate nanotechnology.

Carbon nanotubes make bicycle frames and tennis rackets lighter and stronger.
Nano-sized particles of titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are used in sunscreens.
Nanoscale silver is antimicrobial and prevents food stored in plastic bags from
going bad.
Clothes treated with nano-engineered coatings are stain-proof or static-free.
Computer chips using nanoscale components are used anywhere from computers
to mp3 players, digital cameras to video game consoles
The Diode Characteristic I-V Curve

56
Diode Model
 Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode The diode is designed to allow current to flow in only one
Model direction. The perfect diode would be a perfect
conductor in one direction (forward bias) and a perfect
insulator in the other direction (reverse bias). In many
situations, using the ideal diode approximation is
acceptable.

Example: Assume the diode in the circuit below is ideal. Determine the value of I D
if a) VA = 5 volts (forward bias) and b) VA = -5 volts (reverse bias)

RS = 50  a) With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is

acting like a perfect conductor so:
ID ID = VA/RS = 5 V / 50  = 100 mA

+ b) With VA < 0 the diode is in reverse bias and is

VA
_ acting like a perfect insulator, therefore no current
can flow and ID = 0.
 Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode with This model is more accurate than the simple ideal diode
Barrier Potential model because it includes the approximate barrier
potential voltage. Remember the barrier potential
voltage is the voltage at which appreciable current starts
+ to flow.
V

Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode model include the barrier
potential. Assume V = 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode) Determine the value of
ID if VA = 5 volts (forward bias).

RS = 50 
With VA > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is
acting like a perfect conductor so write a KVL
ID equation to find ID:
+ 0 = VA – IDRS - V
VA
_ + ID = VA - V = 4.7 V = 94 mA
V RS 50 
 Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode This model is the most accurate of the three. It includes a linear
with Barrier forward resistance that is calculated from the slope of the linear
portion of the transconductance curve. However, this is usually
Potential and not necessary since the RF (forward resistance) value is pretty
Linear Forward constant. For low-power germanium and silicon diodes the RF
Resistance value is usually in the 2 to 5 ohms range, while higher power
diodes have a RF value closer to 1 ohm.

ID
+
V RF Linear Portion of
transconductance
curve

RF = VD ID

I D
VD
VD
 Diode Circuit Models
The Ideal Diode Example: Assume the diode is a low-power diode with a
with Barrier forward resistance value of 5 ohms. The barrier potential
Potential and voltage is still: V = 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode)
Determine the value of ID if VA = 5 volts.
Linear Forward
Resistance

RS = 50 

Once again, write a KVL equation for the

ID
circuit:
+ 0 = VA – IDRS - V - IDRF
VA ID = VA - V = 5 – 0.3 = 85.5 mA
_ +
V RS + RF 50 + 5

RF
Diode Circuit Models
Values of ID for the Three Different Diode Circuit Models

Ideal Diode
Ideal Diode
Model with
Model with
Ideal Diode Barrier
Barrier
Model Potential and
Potential
Linear Forward
Voltage
Resistance

ID 100 mA 94 mA 85.5 mA

These are the values found in the examples on previous slides where
the applied voltage was 5 volts, the barrier potential was 0.3 volts and
the linear forward resistance value was assumed to be 5 ohms.
Load-Line Analysis of Diode Circuit
 dv di
We can use v  iR, i  C , v  L ,...
dt dt
  vD  
but when there is a diode : i D  I s exp   1
  n VT  
It is difficult to write KCL or KVL equations.

For the circuit shown,

KVL gives :
VSS  R i D  v D
If the I - V curve of
the diode is given,
we can perform the
" Load - Line Analysis"
64
Example 1- Load-Line Analysis
For the circuit shown,
Given : VSS  2V, R  1kΩ ,
the I - V curve of the diode
Find : the diode current and voltage
at the operating point (Q - point)

VSS  R i D  v D , i.e.,
2  1000 i D  v D
 perform load - line analysis
 at the operating point
V DQ  0.70 V, i DQ  1.3 mA

65
Example 2 - Load-Line Analysis
For the circuit shown,
Given : Vss  10 V, R  10 k ,
the I - V curve of the diode
Find : the diode current and voltage
at the operating point

VSS  R i D  v D , i.e.,
10  10k i D  v D
 perform load - line analysis
 at the operating point
VDQ  0.68 V, i DQ  0.93 mA

66
Zener-Diode Voltage-Regulator Circuits
1. The Zener Diode
* Zener diode is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown region.
* The breakdown voltage is controlled by the doping level (-1.8 V to -200
V).
* The major application of Zener diode is to provide an output reference
that is stable despite changes in input voltage – power supplies,
voltmeter,…

67
2. Zener-Diode Voltage-Regulator Circuits
* Sometimes, a circuit that produces constant output voltage while
operating from a variable supply voltage is needed. Such circuits are
called voltage regulator.
* The Zener diode has a breakdown voltage equal to the desired output
voltage.
* The resistor limits the diode current to a safe value so that Zener diode
does not overheat.

68
Example 3 – Zener-Diode Voltage-Regulator Circuits

Given : the Zener diode I - V curve, R  1k

Find : the output voltage for VSS  15 V and
VSS  20 V

KVL gives the load line :

VSS  R i D  v D  0
From the Q - point we have :
v o  10.0 V for VSS  15 V
v o  10.5 V for VSS  20 V
5V change in input
 0.5V change in vo

Actual Zener diode

performs much better!
69
Diode Circuit
Rectifier Circuits
* Rectifiers convert ac power to dc power.
• Rectifiers form the basis for electronic power suppliers and battery charging
circuits.
Half-Wave Rectifier

71
* Battery-Charging Circuit

* The current flows only in the direction that charges the battery.

72
* Half-Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

* To place a large capacitance across the output terminals:

73
Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits

* Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier – two half-wave rectifier with out-of-phase

source voltages and a common ground.
* When upper source supplies “+” voltage to diode A,
the lower source supplies “-” voltage to diode B;
and vice versa.
* We can also smooth the output by using a large capacitance.
74
Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits
* The Diode-Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier:

A,B C,D

75