Stage 1

STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

 To relate the type of bonding and structures of metallic, ionic and covalent

compounds to their respective physical properties.

 Explain high melting points and boiling points of metallic, ionic and covalent

compounds.

 Explain why metal and molten ionic compounds are electrical conductors, whereas

solid ionic and covalent compounds are electrical insulators

CHEMICAL BONDING

Chemical
Bonding
Primary
Metallic Ionic Bonds Covalent bond
Bond Bond

Secondary Dispersion Hydrogen Dipole dipole

Interaction Force Bond interaction
 METALLIC BOND
 Found in metals; holds metal atoms together
 It occurs between atoms with low electronegativity

 Many metals have an unfilled outer orbital

 In an effort to be energy stable, their outer electrons

become delocalised amongst all atoms
 No electron belongs to one atom

 They move around throughout the piece of metal.

 Metallic bonds are not ions, but nuclei with moving

electrons. This free moving electrons are called 'sea' of
delocalised electrons
 METALLIC BOND
 The delocalised electrons hold the metal cations strongly
since the metal cations and the electrons are oppositely
charged
 The electrostatic forces causing them to have the
attraction which commonly known as called metallic
bonds and it is very strong
Metallic Bonds: Mellow dogs with plenty
of bones to go around.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Physical State- solid, metallic
structure.

Conductivity
 Delocalised electrons are
free to move so when a
potential difference is
applied they can carry the
current along
 Mobile electrons also mean
they can transfer heat well
 Their interaction with light
makes them shiny (lustre)
 MALLEABILITY
 The electrons are attracted
the nuclei and are moving
around constantly.
 The layers of the metal atoms
can easily slide past each
other without the need to
break the bonds in the metal
 Gold is extremely malleable
that it can be hammered into
a sheet
MELTING POINTS AND BOILING POINTS
 Melting point is related to the energy required to deform
the metallic bond and boiling point (BP) is related to the
energy required to break the metallic bond.
 BP requires the cations and its electrons to break away
from the others so BP are very high.
 The greater the amount of valence electrons, the stronger
the metallic bond.

Smaller radius, greater charge stronger metallic bond

IONIC BOND
 IONIC BOND
 Attraction between cations and anions. (electrostatic
attraction)
 Electron transfer.

 Metal atoms lose electrons and non-metal gain them in

order to produce a noble gas electron configuration.
 The larger the difference in electronegativity between
two atoms, the stronger the ionic bond

Metal Non Metal

• high electronegativity
• low electronegativity
• gain valence e-
• lose valence e-
• become an anion
• become a cation
IONIC BONDING

 Cation smaller than the parent atom; anion larger than

the parent atom
 Due to donation of electron valance of the metal atom
Ionic Bonds: One Big Greedy Thief Dog!
                        

                               
Ionic bonding can be visualized with
the aid of Lewis diagrams.
 +ve ion and –ve ion attract
-+ - - - each other through
- electrostatic attraction (ionic
+
+ bond)

Each +ve ions are

+ surrounded by many –ve
ions and vice versa, forming
a closely packed ionic lattice
structure.

Close packed ionic lattice Ratio of +ve and –ions

depends on the formula of
ionic compound.
 Physical Properties:
Property Explanation
State Solid; closed packed ionic lattice structure

Melting point and High MP and BP, because large amount of thermal energy is
boiling point required to separate the ions which are bound by strong electrostatic
forces throughout the lattice structure

Electrical Do not conduct electricity at solid state, because no mobile ions to

conductivity carry charge.
Able to conduct electricity when in aqueous solution or molten form
as there’s free moving ions.

Hardness Hard; the surfaces of crystals are not easily scratch, as ions are
bound strongly to the lattice and aren't easily displaced.

Brittleness Brittle; crystal will shatter if try to distort it, because distortion cause
ions of like charges to come close together then sharply repel

Note: bp< 400oC – low ; 400-1000oC is medium; > 1000oC is high

COVALENT BONDING
 sharing of pairs of electrons between two or more atoms
 involve non-metal elements with same elements or
various elements which depends on electronegativity
 Such bonds lead to stable molecules if they share
electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas
configuration for each atom.
BONDING BETWEEN NON METAL AND
NON METAL

Non Metal Non Metal

• High electronegativity
• Hence share e

What is covalent bond?

Electrostatic attraction between
Orbital overlap/ merge, shared
the shared paired of e with both electrons will orbit within the
the nucleus overlap orbitals
DISCRETE/ SIMPLE COVALENT BOND
 Hydrogen gas forms the simplest covalent bond
in the diatomic hydrogen molecule.

 The halogens such as chlorine also exist as

diatomic gases by forming covalent bonds.

 Thenitrogen and oxygen which makes up the

bulk of the atmosphere also exhibits covalent
bonding in forming diatomic molecules.


                          

                       

Covalent bonding can be visualized with the aid of

Lewis diagrams
Physical Properties:
Property Explanation
State at r.t.p Gases, liquids, or solids (made of
molecules)
Melting point Low melting and boiling points because
and boiling less amount of thermal energy is required to
point separate the bond which are bound by weak
secondary interaction.
Electrical Poor electrical conductors in all phases
conductivity because no mobile ions to carry charge.
Solubility Many soluble in non-polar liquids but
not in water
Elements with a HIGH electronegativity
have a STRONG pull on electrons.

Elements with a LOW electronegativity

have a WEAK pull on electrons.
 When two atoms bond their DIFFERENCE in
DIFFERENCE IN
electronegativity determines the bond type.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY

difference in electronegativity means one

atom will take the electrons completely.
This is an polar covalent bond.
When the electronegativity of two
bonding atoms is very similar, neither
the electrons are shared equally.

This produces a non polar

covalent bond
COVALENT BOND-POLARITY
 In covalent bond the sharing of electrons depends on the
electronegativity difference between the non-metal
atoms.
A polar bond has a partial positive charge
(+) and a partial negative charge (-)
POLAR COVALENT BONDING

 Have difference of electronegativity value; polar covalent bond

 The electron density of the more electronegative element is
higher
 Form a partial negative charge and partial positive charge
POLAR COVALENT BONDING
 due to the unequal sharing of electrons where the more
electronegative atom will attract electrons more stronger
 To identify the polarity of the compound, it can be
determine by calculating the differences of the
electronegativities values
The N-H bond is polar, with N
being the most electronegative.
  -
 +
 +

 +

The N-H bond is polar, with N being the most

electronegative.
NON-POLAR COVALENT BONDING

Equal distribution of the shared

pair of electrons between the two
non-metals
.
NON-POLAR COVALENT BONDING

Double bonds

Triple bonds
 Non-polar bond Polar bond Very polar bond

eg. H–H eg. S–H eg. N–H

O=O P – Cl O–H
Same N–O F–H
electronegativity C–N
Si – O Very big difference
exception: A significant in
C–H difference in electronegativity
Difference in electronegativity
is so small, assume

the same
electronegativity
Bonds between two Bonds between two
shared atom more shared atom easily
difficult to break, broken, therefore High
therefore Low reactivity
reactivity
Continuous covalent bond
 There are many covalent bonding form / continuous covalent
bonding, into a giant molecular structure (continuous
covalent network structure); unlike discrete covalent
molecule (small molecules).
 Eg: diamond, quartz and graphite.
 Very hard, very high MP and BP, insoluble in water.
Giant covalent molecule
COMPARISON OF PROPERTIES OF
IONIC AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
 Because of the nature of ionic and covalent
bonds, the materials produced by those bonds
tend to have quite different macroscopic
properties.

 The atoms of covalent materials are bound

tightly to each other in stable molecules, but
those molecules are generally not very strongly
attracted to other molecules in the material.
 On the other hand, the atoms (ions) in ionic
materials show strong attractions to other ions in
their vicinity.

 This generally leads to low melting points for

covalent solids, and high melting points for ionic
solids.
For example, the molecule carbon tetrachloride
is a non-polar covalent molecule, CCl4. It's
melting point is -23°C. By contrast, the ionic
solid NaCl has a melting point of 800°C.
MOLECULAR POLARITY
 A POLAR MOLECULE HAS POLAR
BONDS AND ASYMMETRY

Polar bonds Polar bonds

Non-polar molecule Polar molecule
δ-
δ-
δ+
δ - δ- Positive
side δ+
δ- negative
side
Symmetry- all sides are Asymmetry- has
the same
different sides
GROUP THE FOLLOWING MOLECULES AS VERY POLAR , POLAR OR NON-POLAR COVALENT

 H2O

 CH4

 H2S
 HF
 NH3

 CO2

 CCl4

 CHCl3
 S=O
MOLECULAR SHAPE
WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURES FOR
MOLECULAR (COVALENT) COMPOUNDS
1. sketch arrangement of atoms
(determine central atom)
2. determine number of valence e-
3. Determine the central atom and the
terminal
4. place two e- in each bond
5. complete octets on terminal atoms
6. place any remaining e- on central atom
7. IF central atom has less than an octet,
form multiple bonds
 0 lone pairs on central atom

Cl Be Cl

2 atoms bonded to central atom

10.1
10.1
10.1
VSEPR: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

Number Number
Shape
of of Approximate
Region Formula of Examples
Bond Lone Bond angles
molecule
pairs pairs
1 1 0 AX Linear -

2 2 0 AX2 Linear 180o BeCl2, CO2

CO32-, NO3-
Trigonal o
3 0 AX3 120 ,
planar
SO3

3
SO2, SnCl2,
2 1 AX2E V-shaped 120o O3,
NO2-

CH4, SiCl4,
4 0 AX4 Tetrahedral 109o28' NH4+,
PO43-, SO42-

Trigonal around
4 3 1 AX3E NH3, PCl3,
pyramidal 109o28'

H2O, SCl2,
around
2 2 AX2E2 V-shaped
109o28'
 VSEPR: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion

Number Number
Shape
of of Approximate
Region Formula of Examples
Bond Lone Bond angles
molecule
pairs pairs
1 1 0 AX Linear -

2 2 0 AX2 Linear 180o BeCl2, CO2

CO32-, NO3-
Trigonal
3 0 AX3 120o ,
planar
SO3

3
SO2, SnCl2,
2 1 AX2E V-shaped 120o O3,
NO2-

CH4, SiCl4,
4 0 AX4 Tetrahedral 109o28' NH4+,
PO43-, SO42-

Trigonal around
4 3 1 AX3E NH3, PCl3,
pyramidal 109o28'

H2O, SCl2,
around
2 2 AX2E2 V-shaped
109o28'
VSEPR: VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON
PAIR REPULSION
The nonbonding electron pairs are as important as bonding electron
pairs in determining the structure.

Nonbonding electrons take up more space in the valence shell than the
bonding electrons.

If one or more of the electron pairs are lone pairs, the distribution of
electron pair and the geometrical shape of the molecule must be
different.

The bond angles decrease as the number of nonbonding electron pairs

increases
Repulsion strengths

lone pair -lone pair  lone pair e-bond pair  bond pair-bond pair
 PREDICT THE MOLECULAR SHAPE

A. SO2

B. SiCl4

C. Cl2O

D. NH3

E. NOCl

F. NH4+
 Octet expansion can happen for S, Cl and
G. SO42- P
 Octet deficient can happen for Boron
H. PCl5

I. NO2-
 Explain Why CH4 is a tetrahedral and NH3 is a trigonal
pyramidal?

CH4 - C as central atom has ____ regions of electrons and all are
bonding pair electron which are arranged tetrahedrally, to obtain
minimum repulsion so as minimise stability .

NH3 has ____ regions, has only 3 _______________ and

_______________in its valence shell. The 4 regions of bonding
electrons will ___________as far as possible therefore forming
tetrahedral shape but due the present of one non-bonding electron,
NH3 has trigonal pyramidal shape, to gain maximum stability and
to minimise repulsion force.
MOLECULAR
POLARITY
 The polarity of a molecule depends on the distribution of
electrons in the molecules.
 Molecular Polarity depends on:

a. Bond Polarity
b. Shape of the molecule- symmetrical or asymmetrical
o How to be symmetrical (zero dipole)
a. All bonds are equally polar
b. All bond angel must be the same
 EXPLAIN THE POLARITY OF
MOLECULES
• CH4 - All four C-H bonds in methane are
___________.
 CH4 has an symmetrical ______________shape,
overall dipole moment is __________
 Therefore CH
4 ______________________molecule.

• H2O All two O-H bonds in H2O are _______

 H2O has an _asymmetrical _________
shape, got overall dipole moment.
 Therefore H O is
2
_______________molecule
SECONDARY
INTERACTION
 Non-polar Polar molecules Very polar
molecules molecules

In any molecules (non-

polar), electrons are
evenly distributed Permanent dipole all Very polar permanent
around molecule the time, attraction is dipole all the time,
always the same at all attraction is the
time. strongest.
Dipole-dipole Hydrogen Bond
Temporary dipole
causes induced dipole; Interaction
attraction is temporary
and weak but happen
always
Dispersion Forces
 Intermolecular forces (dispersion forces, dipole-
dipole interactions and hydrogen bonds) are
much weaker than intramolecular forces or
primary bonding (covalent bonds, ionic bonds or
metallic bonds)

 dispersion forces are the weakest intermolecular

force, hydrogen bonds are the strongest
intermolecular force.

 dispersion forces < dipole-dipole interactions < hydrogen bonds

DISPERSION FORCES
 These forces always operate in any substance. The force arisen from
induced dipole and the interaction is weaker than the dipole-dipole
interaction.

 Very weak forces of attraction between molecules resulting from:

Due to the movement of the electrons, able to generate temporary +ve and
-ve region (temporary dipole, δ+ & δ-) in the molecule.

 The more electrons that are present in the molecule, the stronger the
dispersion forces will be. In general, the heavier the molecule, the stronger
the dispersion force of interaction.
 For example, the boiling points of inert gases increase as their
atomic masses increases due to stronger dispersion forces.

 Dispersion forces are the only type of intermolecular force operating

between non-polar molecules

example,
hydrogen (H2) molecules,
chlorine (Cl2) molecules,
carbon dioxide (CO2) molecules,
dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) molecules
methane (CH4) molecules.
 They are a stronger intermolecular force than dispersion forces
or dipole-dipole interactions.

 Hydrogen nucleus is extremely small and positively charged and

fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen being very electronegative so that
the electron on the hydrogen atom is strongly attracted to the
fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen atom, leaving a highly localized
positive charge on the hydrogen atom and highly negative
localized charge on the fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen atom.

 This means the electrostatic attraction between these molecules

will be greater than the polar molecules that do not have
hydrogen covalently bonded to either fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen.
 They are a stronger intermolecular force than dispersion forces
or dipole-dipole interactions.

 Hydrogen nucleus is extremely small and positively charged and

fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen being very electronegative so that
the electron on the hydrogen atom is strongly attracted to the
fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen atom, leaving a highly localized
positive charge on the hydrogen atom and highly negative
localized charge on the fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen atom.

 This means the electrostatic attraction between these molecules

will be greater than the polar molecules that do not have
hydrogen covalently bonded to either fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen.
EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ON
MELTING AND BOILING POINTS OF MOLECULAR
COVALENT SUBSTANCES:

 Since melting or boiling result from a progressive

weakening of the attractive forces between the covalent
molecules, the stronger the intermolecular force is, the
more energy is required to melt the solid or boil the
liquid.
 If only dispersion forces are
present, then the more
electrons the molecule has
(and consequently the more
mass it has) the stronger the
dispersion forces will be, so
the higher the melting and
boiling points will be.
 If a covalent molecule has a permanent net
dipole then the force of attraction between these
molecules will be stronger than if only
dispersion forces were present between the
molecules.

 As a consequence, this substance will have a

higher melting or boiling point than similar
molecules that are non-polar in nature.
 If a covalent molecule has a
hydrogen bond then the force of
attraction between these molecules
will be stronger than if only
dipole-dipole interaction were
present between the molecules.

 As a consequence, this substance

will have a higher melting or
boiling point than similar
molecules that are non-polar in
nature.
SELF CHECK
1. Predict the shape of H2S and PBr3. Explain your answer.
2. The CFC known as CFC-12 is CCl2F2, both CFC-12 and
ammonia are used as refrigerant gases. Ammonia boils
at -33oC and CFC-12 boils at -30OC.
Explain why the boiling points are similar, yet the
molecular mass of CFC-12 is more than seven times that of
ammonia.
SELF CHECK
1. Predict the shape of H2S and PBr3. Explain your answer.
2. The CFC known as CFC-12 is CCl2F2, both CFC-12 and
ammonia are used as refrigerant gases. Ammonia boils at
-33oC and CFC-12 boils at -30OC.
Explain why the boiling points are similar, yet the molecular mass
of CFC-12 is more than seven times that of ammonia.
 Ammonia is a very polar molecule. it is held together by strong
H-B. Therefore Higher heat energy is required to break the 2 o
interaction. Hence the bp is high
 CFC-12 is a polar molecule. Held together by DDI. Since it has
high molecular mass. It also has DF. Higher heat energy is
required to break the 2o interaction
 Therefore.. the bp is similar.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COVALENT
MOLECULES
 Depends on the secondary interactions form between the
molecules
 State at r.t.p
 Melting point or boiling point
 Solubility in water
Boiling point and melting point

CH4 NH3
Molecular polarity

Secondary interaction

More or less Heat Energy

required

Conclusion
Physical State at r.t.p
CO2 H2O
Molecular polarity

Solid: Held very closely

together

Liquid: held together in

cluster

Gas: Held very loosely

together

HE at r.t.p sufficient or not

to break secondary
interaction
Conclusion
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
Ionic compounds
• dissociate to form ions in water
• Interaction between ions and very polar water
molecules: ion-dipole bonds

Metallic compounds
•Not soluble in water

Covalent Molecules
• Ionise to form ions in water
• Interaction between covalent molecules and very
polar water molecules: hydrogen bonds
EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ON
SOLUBILITY OF MOLECULES IN WATER

In general like dissolves like:

 non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar

Solvents
Example :
Paraffin wax (C30H62) is a non-polar solute that
will dissolve in non-polar solvents like oil, hexane
(C6H14) or carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
Paraffin wax will NOT dissolve in polar solvents
such as water (H2O) or ethanol (ethyl alcohol,
C2H5OH).
 polar solutes such as glucose (C6H12O6) will dissolve in
polar solvents such as water (H2O) or ethanol (ethyl
alcohol, C2H5OH)

 The partially positively charged atom of the solute

molecule is attracted to the partially negatively charged
atom of the solvent molecule, and the partially
negatively charged atom of the solute molecule is
attracted to the partially positively charged atom of the
solvent molecule.

 Glucose will NOT dissolve in non-polar solvents such as

oil, hexane (C6H14) or carbon tetrachloride (CCl4).
MISCIBLE AND IMMISCIBLE
LIQUIDS.

Immiscible Miscible
 MISCIBLE LIQUID

Covalent Bond
O Within the molecule
δ+ H H (intramolecular)
δ-

δ+
Hydrogen Bond δ- δ- δ+
Between molecules O
(intermolecules) H H
 Ionic solutes such as sodium chloride (NaCl) will
generally dissolve in polar solvents but not in non-polar
solvents.

 since the positive ion is attracted the partially negatively

charged atom in the polar solvent molecule, and the
negative ion of the solute is attracted to the partially
positively charged atom on the solvent molecule.
Ionic bonds are broken, ions become free but surrounded by
water molecules; this process is called as dissociation.
Attraction of ions to water molecules: ion-dipole bonds
QUESTION
Ammonia Methane

Structural
formula
Boiling point -33 -160

Draw the structural formula of ammonia and methane

(4 marks)

Explain the difference in the boiling points of

ammonia and methane in terms of their intermolecular
bonding. (8 marks)
QUESTION
State what type of bonding between calcium and
phosphate. Explain why calcium phosphate is a high
melting point solid.