STRUCTURAL FEATURES

REFERENCE
Chapter 4 Geological Structures (A Geology for
Engineers 7th Edition by F.G.H. Blyth and M.H. de
Freitas), lecture slides & class notes
General
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Stress
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Compression, tension and
shear forces stress the
rocks, causing them to
strain
Three types of stress
a) Compression stress
causes bending strain
b) Tension stress causes
thinning strain
c) Shearing stress causes
shear strain
Units of stress are
Pressure: Force/Area
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Compression, Tension,
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and Shearing Stress

Convergent Divergent Transform

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Types of deformation
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• Elastic deformation up to elastic limit

• Plastic deformation
– Does not spring back … keeps deformed shape
– Cause can be high melting temperature or high
pressure
• Brittle failure it breaks, causes
– Subjected to great stress that exceeds the
elastic limit, OR
– Subjected to sudden stress, “impact”
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Relationship
Between
Stress and
Strain

Strain can be a change in shape (a deformation) due to an applied stress

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Factors affecting rock
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deformation

• Intensity of applied stress

• Heat –Temperature of the Rock
• Amount of Time the Stress is applied
• Rock Composition
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Interpreting Deformed Rocks

• Most apparent in sedimentary rocks

• Importance of deformation
– Indicates past plate motions
– Indicates other past geological events
– Locates specific natural resources
• Mapping, strike and dip
Strike and Dip
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Strike and Dip
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St

Map Symbols: Strike shown as long line, dip

as short line. Note the angle of dip shown:
45o

Strike intersection w horizontal, dip perpendicular, angle from horizontal down toward surface
 i p
D
e &
St
r ik Strike & Dip

Strike is compass direction of the

intersection line for an inclined plane
(e.g. rock unit. Fault etc) with a
horizontal plane
Dip is the angle measured down and
from horizontal plane and also the
direction of angle determined 900 to
the strike.
 Structural Features in Rocks
• All the masses, as it exists at present in the field , have some
features which may be called as its structure.
 Primary structure
• It is the structure that take place
during the formation of rocks.
 Secondary structure

• Secondary structure are those caused by large-

scale moments of the earth’s crust with respect
to one an other.
• This large scale moments includes two types of
moment
 Epeirogenic moment
 Orogenic moment
 Epeirogenic moment

• The up and down or vertical moment

which involves much considerable area
but does not cause much deformation.
 Orogenic moment
• The horizontal moments in which
there are considerable deformation
or displacement.
• This will result folding and braking
of rock masses.
 Primary structure
– Igneous rocks
Flow structure (parallel
arrangement of particles)
Fracture structure due to stresses
created on cooling of the magma
– Sedimentary Rocks
stratification
Folds
 Folds
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• During crustal deformation rocks are often

bent into a series of wave-like undulations
called folds
• Folds result from ductile deformation of
rocks
• Such strata is competent. (Brittle strata is
incompetent)
• , usually formed at great depth (>10 km)
 folds exist at all scales from < mm to
ds
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l entire mountain ranges
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References for a fold
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Fo

– Limbs – refers to the

two sides of a fold
– Axis – a line drawn HINGE
down the points of
maximum curvature
of each layer
– Axial plane – an
imaginary surface
that divides a fold
symmetrically
– Hinge – Line along a
particular bed
where the curvature
is maximum CREST &
TROUGH
 l ds Common types of folds
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• Antiform: concave downward fold.

• Synform: concave upward fold.

• Anticline: concave downwards with oldest

rocks in the hinge of fold.
• Syncline: concave upward with youngest
rocks in the hinge of fold.
• (If age can not be determined)
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Anticline
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Syncline
 Folded
s
Rocks, Newfoundland,
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Fo New Jersey
Note highest point

Source: Breck P. Kent

Adjacent Anticline and Syncline

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Folded Rock Before Erosion
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Folded Rock After Erosion

Eroded Anticline, older rocks in center. Syncline is opposite.

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Fold Geometry
CLASSIFICATION
Symmetrical or open folds
Asymmetrical folds
Overturned folds
Recumbent folds
Chevron folds
Plunging folds
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Various Folds
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Various Folds
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Various Folds (cont'd)
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Various Folds (cont'd)

ASSYMMETRICAL
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Various Folds (cont'd)
 l ds Various Folds (cont'd)
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Fo
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Various Folds (cont'd)

Axis

Axial plane near axis should be close to horizontal

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Various Folds (cont'd)

RECUMBENT
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Various Folds (cont'd)

chevron folds (More triangular than curved)

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Various Folds (cont'd)

plunging folds (fold hinge is inclined)

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patterns of plunging folds

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Various Folds (cont'd)
Demo: Plastic box, water, paper folds

Up
End Down
End

Plunging Folds
Nose of anticline points direction of plunge, syncline nose in opposite direction
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Various Folds (cont'd)

Plunging Folds
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other types of folds
• dome
– circular, or slightly elongated
– upwarped displacement of rocks
– oldest rocks in core
• basin
– circular, or slightly elongated
– downwarped displacement of rocks
– youngest rocks in core
Result from vertical forces
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3-D: Dome and Basin